ИНОСТРАННЫЙ ЯЗЫК
Задание: выберете правильный вариант ответа.
1. She's ... university teacher.
1) a
2) an
3) the
4) one
2. I like ... small animals.
1) the
2) ....
3) every
4) all
3. Is this coat...?
1) yours
2) your
3) the yours
4) yourself
4. Is Diana ...? 1) a friend of you 2) your friend 3) you friend
4) a friend of your
5. There aren't... for everybody.
1) chairs enough
2) enough chairs
3) enough of chairs
6. They're ... young to get married.
1) too much
2) too
3) very too
4) too many
7. The plural of car is cars. Which of these is correct plural?
1) journeis
2) ladys
3) babies
4) sandwichs 8. Which of these is correct?
11
1) happier
2) more happie
3) beautifuller
4) unhappyer
9. Last week we … to Warsaw.
1) go
2) goes
3) went
4) had gone
10. I … the film we saw at the cinema on Wednesday.
1) doesn't like
2) haven't liked
3) didn't like
4) don’t like
11. My mother … never been to a cricket match.
1) hadn't
2) haven't
3) has
4) was
12. Joanna … her new mobile phone.
1) is losing
2) loses
3) has lost
4) losed
13. … ever seen a comet?
1) Did you
2) Have you
3) Do you
4) Does you
14. If I were rich, I … buy a huge house in Somerset.
1) will
2) shall
3) would
4) should
15. They … pass their exam if they studied hard.
1) would
2) will
3) did
4) do 16. This is ... winter for 20 years.
1) the more bad
2) worse
3) the worst
4) worst
17. I have been living in Madrid ......
1). since ten years.
2). ten years ago.
3). for ten years.
4). ten years.
18. This is the … thing I have ever done.
1). harder
2). hardest
3). hard
4). more hard
19. Have you finished with the newspaper ......
1). still?
2). already?
3). now?
4). yet?
20. If I want to pass my exam, I ...... ...... study harder.
1) will have to
2). would have to
3). had to
4). want to
21. Michael is ...... his sister.
1). not so clever than
2). not as clever than
3). not as clever as
4). not so clever as
22. She's much taller... me.
1) than
2) as
3) that
4) .....
23. You... worry about it.
1) not must
2 don't must
3) must no
4) mustn't
24 It... again. It... all the time here in the winter.
1) 's raining, 's raining
2) rains, rains
3) rains, 's raining
4) 's raining, rains
25. I... she... you.
1) think, likes
2). am thinking, is liking
3) think, is liking
4) am thinking, likes
26. What...?
1) does she want
2) does she wants
3) she wants
4) she want
27...a hole in my sock.
1) There is
2) There are
3) It's
4) Is
28. I went out without... money.
1) some
2) any
3) no
4) every
29. My mother... my birthday.
1) always forgets
2) always is forgetting
3) forgets always
4) always forget
30. ... Gloria last week?
1) Have you seen
2) Did you see
3) Were you seeing
4) Was you see
31 As soon as she came in I knew I... her before.
1) have seen
2) saw
3) had seen
4) see
32. This picture... by a friend of my mother's.
1) is painting
2) is painted
3) was paintin
4) was painted
33. Her parents don't want... married.
1) her to get
2) her get
3) that she get
4) that she gets
34. I'm not sure what...
1) do they want
2) do they want.
3) they want.
4) want they.
35. ... he gets .......
1) The richer / the more friends he has
2) Richer / more he has friends
3) Riche / more friends he has
4) The richer / the more he has friends
36. That... be Roger at the door - it's too early.
1) can't
2) mustn't
3) couldn't
4) couldn’t
37. I wonder if John ... this evening.
1) will phone
2) phone
3) phones
4) phoned
38. This is the first time 1... a sports car.
1) 've driven
2) 'm driving
3) drive
4) will drive
39. On her birthday ....
1) she was given a new саr
2) a new car was given her
3) she gives a new саr
4) she gave a new саr
40 We can't use the sports hall yet because it....
1) is still built
2) is still building
3) is still being built
4) still is being built
41. Nobody phoned, did...?
1) anybody
2) he or she
3) they
4) you
42. Any problems …… from the new contract are not my concern. I warned against signing it.
1) producing
2) arising
3) deriving
4) arriving
43. We paid the lawyer to .... up a totally new will, one which left the three boys much better off.
1) draw
2) bring
3) sign
4) make
44. All I can say at the moment is: Long ......... the company!
1) live
2) lives
3) lived
4) living
45. Many students wish they______to learn the lectures. 1) don't have 2) didn't have 3) hadn't have
4) have
46. Sarah wished she______late for the meeting. 1) hadn't been 2) isn't 3) hasn't been
4) was
47. Let's ......... there tomorrow if it's fine.
1) going
2) gone
3) go
4) goes
48. Catherine is studying law at the university, and so______ Nick. 1) is 2) does
3) was
4) do
49. At 10 o'clock in the morning on Wednesday Tom______ a delegation in the office. 1) will be receiving 2) is receiving 3) would receive 4) will receive
50. We are late. The film______by the time we get to the cinema. 1) will be already started 2) will already have started 3) will already start 4) has started
51. I'll finish now and I look forward to ......... you again soon.
1) seeing
2) see
3) seen
4) having seen
52. Please come back soon and ......... the work you started two weeks ago.
1) finished
2) finishing
3) finish
4) finishes
53. ....... me if I've told you this before.
1) Stopping
2) Stopped
3) Stops
4) Stop
54. If I were you, …
1) I wouldn’t drink so much coffee.
2) I would have drink so much coffee.
3) I didn’t drink so much coffee.
4) I would like to drink so many coffee.
e) I hadn’t got any coffee at home.
55. Найдите антоним прилагательному «pleasant»:
1) unpleasant
2) impleasant
3) displeasant
4) mispleasant
56. She has been playing tennis…an hour.
1) in
2) at
3) for
4) during
57. Would you like....... piece of cake?
1) other
2) another
3) more
4) others
58. This large Bengal tiger ........ only in India and Pakistan.
1) living
2) lives
3) live
4) has lived
59. The news I have received ....... good.
1) is
2) are
3) be
4) was
60. Which do you like ....... tea or coffee?
1) good
2) better
3) best
4) bad
61....... Volga is the longest river in Europe.
1) ---
2) The
3) A
4) An
62. ....... the end of the concert, the orchestra took a bow.
1) At
2) In
3) By
4) On
63. Mary said that Paris______beautiful in spring. 1) is 2) was 3) has been
64. You've made .... mistakes in your dictation.
1) too many
2) so much
3) very little
4) a lot
65. He decided to save some money and put ......in the bank.
1) it
2) their
3) them
4) its
66. I don’t like parties .......finish late.
1) who
2) what
3) which
4) so that
67. Have you ever been .... Scotland?
1) in
2) at
3) to
4) into
68. I hate....
1) a rainy weather
2) rainy weather
3) the rainy weather
4) rainy weathers
69. Don’t be angry ...... me, please.
1) at
2) about
3) with
4) for
70. ......a post-office near here?
1) Is
2) Is there
3) Where there
4) There is
71. The police ......the criminal yet.
1) have caught
2) didn’t catch
3) didn't caught
4) haven’t caught
72. Shall I make the final choice right now? – No, you ......
1) mustn't
2) can’t
3) needn’t
4) couldn’t
73. He said that he ...... to Egypt.
1) never had been
2) never was
3) has ever been
4) had never been
74. Before we parted Wi1son asked me .......I wou1d like to go and see his house one day.
1) that
2) which
3) about
4) if
75. Jim’s ......sister wants to become an economist.
1) elder
2) older
3) old
4) the oldest
76. He pays ...... ........ attention to what I say that it makes me angry.
1) such many
2) so little
3) so few
4) such much
77. This car is........ I can’t afford it.
1) cheap
2) expensive
3) bad
4) good
78. I’ve never heard........
1) her to sing
2) her sing
3) she sings
4) she is singing
79. .... breakfast on the train was awful.
1) a
2) an
3) the
d) ---
80. This really is ......food I’ve ever eaten.
1) worst
2) the worst
3) bad
4) the bad
81. He could open the lock .......
1) easy
2) easily
3) most easy
4) easieast
82. The waiter had to change the plates several times, ......?
1) had he
2) hadn’t he
3) did he
4) didn’t he
83. My mother always gives me .......
1) good advices
2) the good advice
3) a good advice
4) good advice
84. The party ended .......midnight.
1) until
2) at
3) on
4) in
85. ........you ........if the city workers are on strike tomorrow?
1) Have/heard
2) Are/hearing
3) Will/hear
4) Do/hear
86. Jane is a friend of.........
1) ours
2) our
3) us
4) we
87. As soon as she came in I knew I..... her before. 1) have seen 2) saw 3) had seen 4) see
88. “......we go out for dinner?” - “Certainly!”
1) Would
2) Can
3) Shall
4) Need
89. We are going to the beach ......the weekend.
1) in
2) on
3) at
4) by
90. When .......in London?
1) have you arrived
2) did you arrive
3) you have arrived
4) you arrived
91. I’am a bit forgetful, ......?
1) am I not
2) am I
3) aren’t I
4) isn’t it
92. I am sure that Jim is .......lies.
1) pronouncing
2) telling
3) talking
4) saying
93. Let’s go to the disco, .......we?
1) don’t we
2) let us
3) won’t we
4) shall we
94. “.......did you go last night?” “To my friend’s place”.
1) What
2) Which
3) When
4) Where
95. You’ve never heard this song.......?
1) isn't it
2) haven't you
3) have you
4) is it
96. Jam ......from fruit.
1) makes
2) made
3) is made
4) is making
97. It’s time .........
1) that we have a break
2) to have a break
3) we will have a break
4) having a break
98. I expect we .......there in half an hour.
1) are being
2) will be
3) are
4) will have been
99. It was....... place I had ever seen.
1) more beautiful
2) most beautiful
3) the most beautiful
4) the beautiful
100. “.......IPod is this?” - “It’s Mark’s”.
1) Who
2) Whose
3) Who’s
4) Which
101. Peter is a bad driver. He drives ........
1) careless
2) carefu1
3) carefully
4) carelessly
102. Dolphins are so intelligent .......they can communicate with people.
1) that
2) than
3) as
4) because
103. They are ......asleep.
1) yet
2) just
3) still
4) else
104. Don’t you know him? He always .... lies.
1) tell
2) say
3) says
4) tells
105. He phoned to say he ......his bag on the plane.
1) forgot
2) has left
3) had left
4) has forgotten
106.I have never seen such .......men.
1) higher
2) high
3) tall
4) the tallest
107. My brother .......Ann Graves since childhood.
1) is loving
2) was loving
3) has been loving
4) has loved
108. He ......the farm since 1947.
1) have been owing
2) own
3) Owned
4) has owned
109. The man is old and we can’t ......well.
1) heard
2) hear
3) to hear
4) listen to
110. They arrived ......the airport on time.
1) by
2) in
3) to
4) at
111. A ......wind is blowing.
1) stronger
2) strong
3) strongest
4) small
112. The plane landed safely ......the two mountains.
1) among
2) on
3) between
4) in
113. The information is top secret, naturally, everybody is interested in ........
1) them
2) they
3) it
4) their
114. I ...... at the university for over eight years now.
1) have been working
2) am working
3) worked
4) was working
115. ........I went or flew with my parents I always took my favorite books with me.
1) Weather
2) Whatever
3) Whether
4) Wherever
116. The books .......for me or .......as presents.
1) often bought/just gave
2) was often bought/was just given
3) were often bought/were just given
4) often bought/gave just
117. The driver was accused of______the road accident by the police that morning. 1) provoke 2) provoking 3) provoked
4) to provoke
118. Didn’t you see the show .......Sunday?
1) at
2) on
3) in
4) for
119. He has been unemployed ........he left the college.
1) for
2) before
3) since
4) during
120. .......there any news in your parents’ letter?
1) are
2) were
3) have
4) is
121. Take your umbrella, it is ........
1) windy
2) frosty
3) foggy
4) rainy
122. Will you go .......working after the baby’s born?
1) after
2) on
3) in
4) about
123. It is ........magical tourist destination full of green lakes and beautiful snow-capped mountains.
1) ----
2) the
3) a
4) an
124. He turned ........the light and looked around the room.
1) off
2) up
3) on
4) down
125. We must be home by ten o’clock ........the latest.
1) in
2) on
3) at
3) by
126. He doesn't recommend ___ in fast food restaurants. 1) to eat 2) to be eating 3) eating
4) to eating
127. If food in the Chinese restaurant is not bad and in the Japanese restaurant it is extremely delicious that means that the first one is .......than the second.
1) the worst
2) better
3) worse
4) the best
128. Tom Sawyer .......by Mark Twain.
1) has written
2) was wrote
3) was written
4) is being written
129. As far as I know he speaks neither Spanish ......Italian.
1) or
2) either
3) not
4) nor
130. Have you seen Mary’s boyfriend.......?
1) yet
2) still
3) just
4) else
131. I wonder what our children....... when we come back.
1) do
2) will do
3) are doing
4) will be doing
132. I was very much surprised when Ann said that she.......
1) Can’t to swim
2) Can’t swim
3) couldn’t swim
4) wasn’t able swim
133. He has never been to...... foreign countries.
1) some
2) any
3) no
4)anywhere
134. I am younger than you, ....... .........?
1) am I?
2) am not I?
3) aren't I?
4) are I?
135. Four people are said______after the explosion. 1) to be arrested 2) be arrested 3) being arrested 4) to have been arrested
136. She means ........ a new car soon.
1) buying
2) buy
3) to buy
4) having bought
137. I want ......me.
1) you to help
2) that you help
3) that you’ll help
4) you helping
138. .........Mississippi is one of the longest rivers in the world.
1) a
2) the
3) an
4) ---
139. Tom said he would come back .......I finished.
1) before
2) while
3) until
4) till
140.We can’t agree ........you on the problem.
1) to
2) with
3) without
4) on
141. By 8 o’clock I .......at this article for 2 hours.
1) will have been working
2) will work
3)will be working
4) was working
142. Charles Dickens is still ........ popular today as when his first work appeared, over 150 years ago.
1) as
2) so
3) such
4) much
143. Everyone enjoyed the party, ........ .........?
1) didn't he?
2) didn't they?
3) didn't it?
4) didn't everyone?
144. You’ve never heard this song_________?
1) isn't it
2) haven't you
3) have you
4) is it
145. She doesn't want to drive her father's car. She's afraid ........it.
1) of crashing
2) to crash
3) to crashing
4) crashing
146. Vera is in hospital. I’m going to visit ........tomorrow.
1) hers
2) she
3) her
4) it
147. “Which shoes do you like?” “The black ........”.
1) one
2) ones
3) those
4) these
148. When we arrived in Sochi, it was very hot and the sun.......
1) was shining
2) shone
3) shined
4) shining
149. My father’s birthday is on a Friday ........year.
1) this
2) that
3) those
4) the
150. He said that he ........to England yet.
1) hadn’t been
2) didn’t be
3) wasn’t
4) wasn’t been
151. By 2008, Michael .......five countries in Europe.
1) had already been visiting
2) was already visiting
3) already visited
4) had already visited
152. Jane was gardening .......Robert was painting the kitchen.
1) when
2) as soon as
3) after
4) while
153. He wonders ........he could possibly get the job.
1) weather
2) whatever
3) whenever
4) whether
154. The clothes are absolutely wet. I should dry .........
1) it
2) their
3) them
4) theirs
155. We’d love ........at a new restaurant tonight.
1) eating
2) to eat
3) to be eating
4) having eaten
156. London is famous ........ its museums.
1) for
2) with
3) of
4) at
157. It’s the restaurant .......serves Chinese food.
1) who
2) what
3) that
4) is
158. Can you be quiet, please? I’m ........the phone.
1) at
2) with
3) on
4) in
159. Mary isn’t here. She has gone out .......lunch.
1) at
2) for
3) with
4) on
160 Who... the window?
1) open
2) opened
3) did opened
4) did open
161. His parents will be very glad, if she______the university. 1) has entered 2) enters 3) enter 4) 'll enter
162. He is very experienced because he has been working here .......six years.
1) since
2) for
2) during
3) by
163. We congratulated Sam .......passing his exams.
1) on
2) for
3) about
4) with
164. Paula takes .......her mother. She is very sensitive.
1) after
2) down
3) over
4) from
165. Metallic paints are used to paint bridges, .........
1) isn't it?
2) isn't that so?
3) no?
4) aren’t they?
166. The ........purpose of the jury system is to allow people to participate in the judicial process, not to inconvenience citizens.
1) most
2) least
3) very
4) much
167. I don't want to read .... books. I hate reading.
1) some
2) any
3) no
4) none
168. Does ...... mind if I smoke?
1) anybody
2) somebody
3) nobody
4) any
169. I am hungry. Let's eat .........
1) some
2) any
3) anything
4) something
170. The accident looked serious but fortunately ...... was injured.
1) anybody
2) anything
3) nobody
4) everything
171. I don't mind where you sit. You can sit ...... you want.
1) anywhere
2) anything
3) somewhere
4) nowhere
172. Translate this sentence: Возможно кто-нибудь видел аварию.
1) Perhaps someone sees the accident.
2) Perhaps anyone saw the accident.
3) Perhaps nobody sees the accident.
4) Perhaps someone saw the accident.
173. I haven't read ... of these books but Jim has read ...... of them.
1) any / some
2) no / some
3) none / any
4) some / any
174. If .... rings the doorbell, don't let .... in.
1) someone/ them
2) someone/ him
3) anyone/ they
4) anyone/ them
175. ... was very kind to me. They did ... they could to help me.
1) anybody / anything
2) everybody / everything
3) anybody / everything
4) everybody / nothing
176.… were you doing last Monday at 6 o’clock?
1) what
2) why
3) when
4) who
177.… was my dog in the evening? W… is he so muddy (грязный)?
1) when/what
2) where/why
3) whom/when
4) who/where
178.… do you go for a trip? – Twice a year.
1) how much
2) how long
3) how often
4) how
179… mansion is it? – It’s mine.
1) who
2) whom
3) how
4) whose
180.W… of you should I reprimand (делать выговор)? W… is to blame?
1) what/whose
2) which/who
3) what/whose
4) when/who
181.For … are you going to purchase it? – For my little son.
1) whose
2) whom
3) which
4) what
182.At … do you aim? – I aim at money and power.
1) why
2) which
3) what
4) who
183.How … do you earn? W… is your salary?
1) many/which
2) much/what
3) much/why
4) many/whose
184.W… doctor do you like most of all? – Dr. Christina or Dr. Juliet?
1) which
2) when
3) why
4) whom
185. В каком предложении необходимо вставить определенный артикль?
1) What is _ weather like today?
2) We have _ large family.
3) What _ good day!
4) My aunt is _ teacher.
186. В каком предложении необходимо вставить неопределенный артикль?
1) There are two _ cups on the table.
2) My _ sister has blue eyes.
3) I live in _ large city.
4) It is _ seventh of December.
187. В каком случае артикль не употребляется?
1) _ sun is shining in the sky.
2) I saw _ beautiful landscapes in that part of the country.
3) Give me _ flower, please.
4) Where is _ picture?
188. В каком случае артикль употребляется?
1) Is your father at _ home?
2) She works at _ school
3) You have some _ pencils.
4) There is a large fountain in _ middle of the city.
189. I have (1) pen, but I have no (2) pencils.
1) 1) the; 2) a
2) 1) a; 2) a
3) 1) ...; 2) a
4) 1) a; 2) …
190. There is (1) small chair in (2) corner of our room.
1) 1) the; 2) a
2) 1) the; 2) …
3) 1) a; 2) the
4) 1) ...; 2) the
191. What (1) colour is his (2) shirt?
1) 1) a; 2) the
2) 1) ...; 2) ...
3) 1) the; 2) a
4) 1) a; 2) ...
192. Выберите вариант ответа, в котором употребляются только определенные артикли.
1) Let's go to _ shop. I want to buy _ bread and _ milk.
2) _ sun is shining brightly in _ sky. What _ good weather!
3) My brother is _ best pupil in his class. Now he is reading something in _ corner of _ room.
4) John had_ very interesting conversation with his _ old friend. They talked almost all _ night.
193. Выберите вариант ответа, в котором употребляются только неопределенные артикли.
1) The Nile is _ longest river in the world. The Amazon is _ not so long, but it is very _ deep.
2) She had _ bad day today. There were _ problems at _ work.
3) _ bedroom is _ large room with two windows. Windows are _ very large.
4) Yesterday I received _ letter from my friend. He said he lived in _ big house.
194. Thank you for...... me.
1) helping
2) help
3) to help
4) helped
195. If I ...... my entrance exams I ....... the happiest man in the world.
1) shall pass / would be
2) passed / am
3) passed / would have been
4) will pass / be
5) pass / shall be
196. What ...... you ....... if the train .... in time?
1) will be / doing / come
2) did / will not come
3) do / didn’t / come
4) have / done / came
5) will / do / doesn’t come
197. If you ...... tickets we ...... Paris.
1) will buy / shall visit
2) bought / visit
3) buys / visited
4) buy / shall visit
198. If you are free, watch the film they ..... on TV.
1) shows
2) showed
3) are showing
4) had showed
199 At 10 o'clock in the morning on Wednesday Tom______ a delegation in the office. 1) will receive 2) will be receiving 3) is receiving 4) would receive
200. 1 hope Kate is coming soon. I______for two hours. 1) am waiting 2) had been waiting 3) have been waiting 4) waited
201. We______for a walk when it______raining. 1) will go, will stop 2) are going, will stop 3) will go, stops 4) go, stops
202. If I ...... you I ...... never her.
1) am / shall forgive
2) was / don’t forgive
3) were / would forgive
4) had been / forgave
203. Many people would be out of work if that factory .... down.
1) had been closed
2) were closed
3) was closing
4) is closed
204. I phoned yesterday, but I ....... get an answer. Where were you?
1) can
2) could
3) managed to
4) couldn’t
205. The neighbors were having a row, and I ........ hear every word they said.
1) can
2) could
3) managed to
4) couldn’t
206. Speak up! I ...... hear you!
1) can
2) could
3) can’t
4) couldn’t
207. Women ...... vote in England until 1922.
1) can
2) are able to
3) managed to
4) couldn’t
208. The doctor says I ....... walk again in two weeks’ time.
1) can
2) could
3) will be able to
4) to be able to
209. You ......be hungry. You’ve just had dinner.
1) aren’t
2) can’t
3) may
4) must
210. You ........ be hungry. You had no lunch.
1) can’t
2) shouldn’t
3) must
4) couldn’t
211. The person charged with a criminal offence.
1) Judge
2) Plaintiff
3) Accused
4) Barrister
212. Law which applies to hearings before quasi-judicial or administrative tribunals.
1) Constitutional law
2) Civil law
3) Private law
4) Administrative law
213. Challenge to a court decision in a higher court.
1) Appeal
2) Judgment
3) Petition
4) Lawsuit
214. The person asking a court to do something
1) Offender
2) Applicant.
3) Injured
4) Juror
215. A person appointed to act for another person.
1) Judge
2) Applicant.
3) Juror
4) Attorney
216. A member of one branch of the legal profession who advises clients, generally works in the courts, and who receives instructions from a solicitor.
1) Attorney
2) Advocate
3) Judge
4) Barrister
217. Demanding payment from a person in return for not revealing something shameful about them.
1) Racketeering
2) Bribetaking
3) Blackmail
4) Granting
218. The name for the rules used for governing a Christian church.
1) Bible
2) Code
3) Canon law
4) Common law
219. Punishing someone for a crime by killing them.
1) Penalty
2) Capital punishment
3) Imprisonment
4) Murder
220. Entering a building without permission with the intention of stealing or doing damage.
1) Visit
2) Duty call
3) Burglary
4) Espionage
221. Law that is based on the results of previous court cases.
1) Private law
2) Case law
3) Administrative law
4) Criminal law
222. A court which does not hear criminal cases.
1) Civil court
2) Supreme court
3) Magistrate court
4) Criminal court
223. Judge made law which has developed over centuries, also referred to as “unwritten law”.
1) Public law
2) Civil law
3) Common law
4) Case law
224. Apply for a right; demand a remedy; or an application for something such as a right
1) Appeal
2) Judgment
3) Claim
4) Petition
225. A court which hears appeals against the decisions of other courts.
1) County court
2) Court of Appeal
3) Coroners’ court
4) Supreme court
226. Act or omission forbidden by criminal law.
1) Tort
2) Crime
3) Illegal parking
4) Privacy breach
227. A court which hears appeals against the decisions of other courts.
1) Magistrates Court
2) Court of Appeal
3) Crown Court
4) Supreme Court
228. A person whose job is to adjudicate in court cases
1) Judge
2) Barrister
3) Solicitor
4) Coroner
229. The territory in which a court can operate
1) Area
2) Jurisdiction
3) Region
4) Bar
230. Verdict pronounced by a court of law.
1) Message
2) Judgment
3) Proposal
4) Appeal
231. To take someone away by force against their will.
1) Theft
2) Burglary
3) Kidnap
4) Murder
232. Law dealing with commerce.
1) Civil law
2) Mercantile law
3) Canon law
4) Property law
233. Domestic law which regulates the relationships between individuals and in which the State is not directly concerned.
1) Administrative law
2) Private law
3) Constitutional law
4) International law
234. A lawyer who can deal with any legal matter and give advice.
1) Judge
2) Solicitor
3) Juror
4) Coroner
235. An examination of the evidence in a case and the law which applies.
1) Probe
2) Trial
3) Questioning
4) Quiz
236. An authority to do something.
1) Permission
2) Order
3) Licence
4) Patent
237. A sum of money which has to be paid if the terms of a contract are broken or a punishment given to someone who commits a crime.
1) Salary
2) Penalty
3) Royalty
4) Bonus
238. Final court of appeal in Ireland, headed by the Chief Justice.
1) International Court of Justice
2) Supreme Court
3) Court of Appeals
4) European Court of Human Rights
239. An agreement between two or more people to do or not to do something
1) Contract
2) Treaty
3) Bargain
4) Transaction
240. A group of people, usually 12, who review all the evidence in a court case and then come to a verdict.
1) Team
2) Jury
3) Juror
4) bench
Задание: прочитать текст на юридическую тематику и передать основную мысль на английском языке в пяти предложениях.
Read and translate the text. Give the main idea of the text in five sentences.
CARD 1
Parliament of Great Britain
Officially the head of the state is the monarch. The power of the monarch is not absolute but constitutional. Parliament restricts it (the power of the monarch).
Parliament in Britain is the oldest Parliament in the world.
The functions of Parliament are: making laws; providing money for the government through taxation; examining government policy, administration and spending; debating political questions.
Every year Parliament passes about a hundred laws directly, by making Acts of Parliament. No new law can be passed unless it has completed a number of stages in the House of Commons and the House of Lords. The monarch also has to give a Bill the Royal Assent, which is now just a formality. Whilst a law is still going through Parliament it is called a Bill. There are two main types of Bills - Public Bills which deal with matters of public importance and Private Bills which deal with local matters and individuals.
Public and Private Bills are passed through Parliament in much the same way. When a Bill is introduced in the House of Commons, it receives a formal first reading. It is then printed and read a second time, when it is debated but not amended. After the second reading the Bill is referred to a committee, either a special committee made up of certain members of the House, or to the House itself as a committee. Here it is discussed in detail and amended, if necessary. The Bill is then presented for a third reading and is debated. If the Bill is passed by the Commons it goes to the Lords, and provided it is not rejected by them, it goes through the same procedure as in the Commons. After receiving the Royal Assent, the Bill becomes an Act of Parliament. In order to be enforced, it must be published in Statute form, becoming a part of Statute Law.
Card 2
American Congress
The legislative branch of national government consists of two houses — the Senate and the House of Representatives — each with a different role, different powers, and a different electoral procedure.
The House of Representatives is the institution of the federal government. The states are divided into congressional districts or constituencies of roughly equal size (around 520,000 people).
There are currently 435 members, who are elected every two years. All states must by law adopt the system of single-member constituencies with a simple majority vote. Vacancies arising from death, resignation, etc, are filled by by-elections.
The Chairman of the House of Representatives, the Speaker, is elected by the House and has important responsibilities, giving him considerable influence over the President. Moreover, should the President and Vice-President die before the end of their terms, it is the Speaker who becomes President.
The Senate is the conservative counterweight to the more populist House of Representatives.
Each state has two senators who, since 1913 (Seventeenth Amendment), have been chosen directly by the electorate. Senators are elected every six years, but the elections are staggered so that one-third of the Senate is elected every two years.
A vacancy caused by death or resignation is filled until the next congressional elections by the nomination of the State Governor.
There are currently 100 senators. The Senate has the special privilege of unlimited debate to safeguard the rights of minorities, but this can enable a small group of Senators to prevent the passage of a bill (filibustering).
CARD 3
Сlassification of law
There are many ways to subdivide the law. One way is to distinguish between substantive law and procedural law. Substantive law sets out the rights and duties governing people as they act in society. Substantive law also establishes rights and privileges.
Procedural law establishes the rules under which the substantive rules of law are enforced. Rules as to what cases a court can decide, how a trial is conducted, and how a judgement by a court is to be enforced are all parts of procedural law.
Another important distinction is between criminal and civil law. Criminal law defines breaches of duty to society at large. It is the society, through government employees called public prosecutors or district attorneys, that brings court action against violators. If you are found guilty of a crime, such as theft, you will be punished by imprisonment or a fine. When a fine is paid, the money goes to the state, not to the victim of the crime.
Duties owed by one person (including corporations) to another are established by civil law. Suit for the breach of a civil duty must be brought by the person wronged. Generally, the court does not seek to punish the wrong but rather to make the wronged party whole through a money award called damages.
Although generally the civil law does not aim to punish, there is an exception. If the behaviour of someone who commits a tort is outrageous, that person can be made to pay punitive damages (also called exemplary damages). Unlike a fine paid in a criminal case, punitive damages go to the injured party.
Sometimes, the same behaviour can violate both the civil law and the criminal law. For instance, a party whose careless driving causes the death of another may face both a criminal prosecution by the state and a civil suit for damages by the survivors of the deceased party. If both suits are successful the person would pay back society for the harm done through a fine or a sentence, and compensate the survivors through the payment of money damages.
CARD 4
Role of Police Force
The word POLICE means, generally, the arrangements made in all civilized countries to ensure that the inhabitants keep the peace and obey the law. The word also denotes the force of peace officers (or police) employed for this purpose.
The police have many functions in the legal process. Though they are mainly concerned with criminal law, they may also be used to enforce judgements made in civil courts. As well as gathering information for offences to be prosecuted in the courts, the police have wide powers to arrest, search and question people suspected of crimes and to control the actions of members of the public during public demonstrations and assemblies. In some countries, the police have judicial functions; for example, they may make a decision as to guilt in a driving offence and impose a fine, without the involvement of a court.
The mere presence of the police is a factor in deterring people from committing offence.
A just legal system needs an independent, honest police force. In countries where the public trusts the police force, they are more likely to report crimes, and it seems that they are also more likely to be law-abiding. Because of their wide powers it would not be difficult for corrupt police forces to falsify evidence against a suspect, to mistreat someone they have arrested, or to accept bribes in return for overlooking offences. There have been numerous cases of police violence against foreign suspects, many of who are not told of their rights in a language which they can understand. In the Birmingham Six case, British police officers obtained confessions from men suspected of bombing a pub by beating them up. In the United States, illegally obtained evidence is not valid in court, but in Britain the court decides whether it is fair to accept such evidence on a case-by-case basis. A confession obtained by force would not be allowed, but one obtained by trickery might.
CARD 5
Сonstitutional law: types and functions of constitutions
Constitutions are the framework for government and may limit or define the authority and procedure of political bodies to execute new laws and regulations. Not all nation states have codified constitutions though all law-governed states have law of land consisting of various imperative and consensual rules. They may include common law, conventions, statutory law and international rules.
Codified constitutions are considered rulemaking fundamentals, or rules about making rules to exercise power. They govern the relationships among the judiciary, the legislature and the executive bodies. One of the key tasks of constitutions within this context is to indicate hierarchies of power. For example, in a unitary state the constitution will vest ultimate authority in the central administration and legislature, and judiciary, though there is often a delegation of authority to local or municipal bodies. When a constitution establishes a federal state it will identify several levels government coexisting with exclusive or shared areas of jurisdiction over lawmaking, application and enforcement.
Human rights or liberties for citizens form a crucial part of a country’s constitution and govern the rights of the individual against the state. Most jurisdictions, like the United States, Ukraine and France, have a single codified constitution. A recent example is the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union, which was intended to be included in the Treaty establishing a Constitution of Europe.
Some countries, like the United Kingdom, have no entrenched document setting out the fundamental rights – in this jurisdiction the constitution is composed of statute, case law and convention. Inspired by a famous philosopher John Locke, the fundamental constitutional principle is that the individual can do anything but that is forbidden by law, while state may do nothing but that is which authorized by law.
The function of codified constitution is also to describe the procedure by which parliaments may legislate. For instance, special majorities may be required to alter the constitution. In two-chamber legislatures there may be a process laid out for second or third readings of bills before a new law can be passed.
CARD 6
English Law
English law can be divided into Statute Law, Common Law and Case Law. Statute Law consists of all laws passed by Parliament. The majority of laws are proposed and drafted by the government in power, any member of the House of Commons or House of Lords can also propose a law. An exception to this is that only a member of the House of Commons may introduce a financial Bill. The laws that are drafted by the government, as the laws proposed by individual members of the House of Commons or House of Lords must be agreed to by Parliament before they become effective. That means that they must be passed by the elected House of Commons, approved (in most cases) by the House of Lords, and confirmed by the Sovereign.
Common Law consists of principles and rules of conduct based on the ancient customs of the country and recognized by the Courts as Law. Common Law is unwritten, and its principles can be learnt only by intensive study of past court decisions and ancient custom. The Common Law can, however, be changed or developed by statute.
But more important perhaps than either the Statute Law or even the Common Law are decisions of the Courts. Just as the many ancient customs of the land make up the Common Law, the collected decisions of the Courts form English "Case Law". Once Parliament has passed a law, the courts must decide what the words of that law mean. The interpretation of the Courts remains till either a higher Court decides that this interpretation was wrong, or Parliament passes another law and changes it.
So once a Court decided against the government on a question of what a law means - and the Courts may decide that a law as worded means something quite different from what the government intended - the government must accept the decision of the Court. They may, if the Houses agree, pass another law. But that takes a great deal of time and trouble.
CARD 7
EU Law
The Law of the European Union is the unique legal system which operates alongside the laws of Member States of the European Union.
The EU law has direct effect within the legal system of its Member States, and overrides national law in many areas, especially in terms of economic and social policy.
The European Union is not a federal government, nor is it an intergovernmental organization. It constitutes a new legal order in international law for the mutual social and economic benefit of the Member States. It is sometimes classified as supernational law.
The European Union law has evolved gradually over the last 56 years. When the Treaty of Paris was signed in 1951, it established the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC), and comprised just 6 Member States.
Five years later the European Economic Community (EC) was founded by the same six Member States, and then they signed EUROATOM (European Autonomic Energy Community Treaty).
The original aim of the Community was economic integration: to create a common market, later defined as a Single Internal Market, in which there could be free trade area, where Member States’ frontiers) between themselves, and a customs union, in which all members agreed to impose on goods coming into the area from non-member states a common level of duty (the Common Customs Tariff).
Now there are around 500 million EU citizens in 27 Member States subject to the EU law, making it one of the most encompassing modern legal systems in the world.
The sources of the EU law are:
1) the Treaties – primary legislation (the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union (Lisbon Treaty), the Treaty on the European Union Maastricht Treaty;
2) secondary legislation enacted by the European Union (such as regulations and directives);
3) general principles, including fundamental human rights, and citizenship of the EU for every national of a Member State;
4) decisions of the European Court.
The EU Treaties are directly applicable in every Member State. Accession to the Community limits the power of national governments and affects national sovereignty – the power to govern. The European Union law has supremacy over, that is, overrides national law.
There are 5 types of legal acts the European Union uses:
treaties;
regulations;
directives;
decisions of the European Court;
recommendations and opinions.
CARD 8
Human Rights
The concept of human rights has existed under several names in European thought for many centuries, at least since the time of King John of England. After the king violated a number of ancient laws and customs by which England had been governed, his subjects forced him to sign the Magna Carta, which enumerated a number of what later came to be thought of as human rights. Among them were the right of the church to be free from governmental interference, the rights of all free citizens to own and inherit property and be free from excessive taxes. Magna Carta established principles of due process and equality before the law and it also contained provisions forbidding bribery and official misconduct. The political and religious traditions in other parts of the world also proclaimed what have come to be called human rights, calling on rulers to rule justly and compassionately, and delineating limits on their power over the lives, property, and activities of their citizens. In the United States, a bloody war over slavery came close to destroying a country founded only eighty years earlier on the premise that, "all men are created equal."
The women's rights movement succeeded in gaining for many women the right to vote. National liberation movements in many countries succeeded in driving out colonial powers. The modern human rights movement didn't invent any new principles. It was different from what preceded it primarily in its explicit rejection of political ideology and partisanship, and its demand that governments everywhere, regardless of ideology, adhere to certain basic principles of human rights in their treatment of their citizens. This appealed to a large group of people, many of whom were politically inactive, not interested in joining a political movement, not ideologically motivated. They were simply outraged that any government dared abuse, imprison, torture, and often kill human beings whose only crime was in believing differently from their government and saying so in public. They took to writing letters to governments and publicising the plights of these people in hopes of persuading or embarrassing abusive governments into better behaviour.
CARD 9
International human rights law
The international human rights movement was strengthened when the United Nations General Assembly adopted of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) on 10 December 1948. Drafted as 'a common standard of achievement for all peoples and nations’, the Declaration for the first time in human history spell out basic civil, political, economic, social and cultural rights that all human beings should enjoy. It has over time been widely accepted as the fundamental norms of human rights that everyone should respect and protect. The UDHR, together with the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and its two Optional Protocols, and the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, form the so-called International Bill of Human Right.
A series of international human rights treaties and other instruments adopted since 1945 have conferred legal form on inherent human rights and developed the body of international human rights. Other instruments have been adopted at the regional level reflecting the particular human rights concerns of the region and providing for specific mechanisms of protection. Most States have also adopted constitutions and other laws which formally protect basic human rights. While international treaties and customary law form the backbone of international human rights law other instruments such as declarations, guidelines and principles adopted at the international level contribute to its understanding, implementation and development. Respect for human rights requires the establishment of the rule of law at the national and international levels.
International human rights law lays down obligations which States are bound to respect. By becoming parties to international treaties, States assume obligations and duties under international law to respect, to protect and to fulfil human rights. The obligation to respect means that States must refrain from interfering with or curtailing the enjoyment of human right. The obligation to protect requires States to protect individuals and groups against human rights abuses. The obligation to fulfil means that States must take positive action to facilitate the enjoyment of basic human.
CARD 10
The Concept and History of Constitution
The idea of a constitution was first elaborated by Aristotle in his classification of governments as monarchies, tyrannies, aristocracies, oligarchies, democracies, and so on. For Aristotle, the best form of government – the best constitution – was that which combined elements of monarchy, aristocracy, and democracy in such a way that the citizens of every class were enabled to enjoy their respective privileges and encouraged to exercise their respective responsibilities in the interest of the whole society.
A constitution, to be worthy of the name, must contain provisions for certain political attributes: stability, both of form and of procedure; yet, on the other hand, adaptability to the social, economic, technological, and other changes that are inevitable in the life of a state; accountability of those in power to some other organ of the state, such as an electorate; representation of the governed within the government; openness in the conduct of government; and division of power among distinct branches of government. Constitutional government is thus limited government, and it is a chief function of a constitution to serve as the standard of legitimacy by which governments may be judged.
In its wider sense, the term “constitution” means the whole scheme whereby a country is governed; and this includes much else besides law. The constitutional lawyer must constantly keep glancing backward into constitutional history; he must also keep his eye on current political practice and the day-to-day working of political institutions. In its narrower sense, “constitution” means the leading legal rules, usually collected into some document that comes to be almost venerated as “The Constitution.” But no country’s constitution can ever be compressed within the compass of one document, and even where the attempt has been made, it is necessary to consider the extralegal rules, customs, and conventions that grow up around the formal document.
CARD 11
Training Lawyers in the UK
In England and Wales there are two distinct branches under the legal system, that of solicitors and barristers.
Both solicitors and barristers must complete two clear stages of training, the academic and vocational stages. Th e academic stage is usually accomplished by obtaining a law degree, although graduates with degrees other than law can still enter the professions by taking the Graduate Diploma in Law which will take a further year of study. A qualifying law degree in the England and Wales (LLB) consists of seven modules drawn from the following subject areas: Public law (constitutional/administrative), European Union law, Procedural Law (including law of evidence), Criminal law, Law of Obligations (contract, restitution, and tort), Property law (real property), Trusts and Equity.
Once you have completed the academic stage, you must complete the second stage of vocational training.
For solicitors, the Law Society requires to take a Legal Practice Course. This is followed by obtaining a Training Contract from a firm of solicitors who agree to provide you with a further two years of training before you are finally admitted as a solicitor to the Law society.
Barristers are required to take the Bar Vocational Course, designed by the General Council of the Bar to provide students of the bar with the practical skills involved in court work. On successful completion of the Bar Exams the student can then be called to the Bar by their Inn of Court. All prospective barristers are required to join one of the four Inns of Court, the tradition involves paying a membership fee and attending a required amount of sessions at their Inn.
Before a barrister can actually practice on their own, they must complete their 12 months 'pupillage' where they work with an experienced barrister to learn the practices that constitute a barrister's work.
CARD 12
Sources of Law
Students of the law discover early that law is complex and flows from a great number of sources. Law can and does take many forms. British Law comes from two main sources: parliamentary or statutory law and Common Law, sometimes known as customary or case law.
English common law dates from "time immemorial". Various customs, usages and conventions have been developed throughout the history of British legal tradition. Case law arises out of disputes and may be found in the decisions of courts. This is a system in which legal decisions are based upon decisions in previous cases and on custom, rather than on detailed written law. If there is no previous similar case the court will decide by applying existing laws to a new set of facts and its decision will become a new precedent for courts to follow in the future. The essential feature then, of Common Law is, that although partly based on local and national customs it is fundamentally judge-made law developed over many centuries.
Laws made by Parliament constitute parliamentary or statutory law. It always prevails, there is nothing move supreme than parliamentary law. Now it is parliamentary law which is gradually seeing common law off the legal field. Statute law can be used to abolish common law rules which have outlived their usefulness, or to amend the common law to cope with the changing circumstances and values of society. Once enacted, statutes, even if obsolete, do not cease to have the force of law. A state stands as law until it is specifically repeated by Parliament. All Acts of Parliament can be repeated by subsequent Parliaments.
Statutes alone would not provide a system of law but merely a set of disjointed rules. The basis of the law remains the Common Law and if all the statutes were repeated we should still have a legal system.
CARD 13
Juries
A jury is a panel of independent citizens selected to assess the evidence produced by the parties involved in a dispute in court and to come to a verdict on guilt or innocence at the end of a trial. Juries are considered a fundamental part of the English legal system. Members of a jury are known as jurors.
Citizens of England and Wales are obliged to undertake jury service in court when asked. The Jury Central Summoning Bureau is responsible for finding juries for trials. The bureau operates on a national basis and selects names at random from the electoral register by computer, taking into account the number of prospective jurors needed for each area.
Jury service is unpaid, but people can claim for food and drink, travel and loss of earnings. Jury service usually lasts for ten working days, but can be longer. Jurors are obliged not to tell anybody about the trial, either before or during it, and not to post comments on social media websites. When the jury retire to the jury room to consider their verdict, they hold their discussion in private. The jury is not allowed to communicate with anyone other than the judge and an assigned court officer.
The court ensures that nobody violates or eavesdrops on the deliberating jury. Juries elect a foreperson, who speaks for the jury and announces the verdict in open court. Juries are not required to give reasons for the decision or to disclose any other form of information as to how they reached the conclusion - the verdict of the jury is final.
Juries are predominantly used in criminal cases; indeed, the Crown Court remains the only court in the English and Welsh system in which a judge regularly sits with a jury. The function of the judge is to advise the jury on the law but it is for the jury alone to decide whether an accused is guilty or innocent as charged. When juries sit in civil cases, their function is to decide on how much money should be awarded in damages.
CARD 14
How does someone become a lawyer?
In some countries in order to practice as a lawyer it is necessary to get a University degree in law. However, in others, a degree may be insufficient; professional examinations must be passed. In Britain, it is not in fact necessary to have a degree, although nowadays most people entering the profession do. The main requirement is to pass the Bar Final examination* (for barristers) or the Law Society Final examination* (for solicitor). Someone with University degree in a subject other than law needs first to take a preparatory course. Someone without a degree at all may also prepare for the final examination, but this will take several years. In most countries, lawyers will tell you that the time they spent studying for their law finals was one of the worst periods of their life! This is because an enormous number of procedural rules covering a wide area of law must be memorized. In Japan, where there are relatively few lawyers, the examinations are supposed to be particularly hard: less than 5 percent of candidates pass. Even after passing the examination, though, a lawyer is not necessarily qualified. A solicitor in England, for example, must then spend two years as an articled clerk, during this time his work is closely supervised by an experienced lawyer, and he must take further courses. A barrister must spend a similar year as a pupil.
The rate at which the legal profession grows is terrific. In the 21st century the number of lawyers will probably outpace the rate of population growth.
Why is the career in law so popular? In the USA the average salary of experienced lawyers in private practice is more than $100,000. Lawyers' salaries are substantially greater than those of many other professionals. The glamour of legal practice strengthens the attraction of its financial rewards.
CARD 15
Law
Law is the set of enforced rules under which a society is governed. Law is one of the most basic social institutions — and one of the most necessary. No society could exist if all people did just as they pleased, without regard for the right of others. Nor could a society also have certain obligations toward one another. The Law thus establishes the rules that define a person’s rights and obligations. The Law also sets penalties for people who violate these rules and it states how government shall enforce the rules and penalties. However, the laws enforced by government can be changed. In fact, laws frequently are changed to reflect changes in a society’s needs and attitudes.
In most societies, various government bodies, especially police agencies and courts see that laws are obeyed. Because a person can be penalized for disobeying the law, most people agree that laws should be just. Justice is a moral standard that applies to all human conduct. The laws enforced by government have usually had a strong moral element, and so justice has generally been one of the law’s guiding principles. But governments can, and sometimes do, enforce laws many people believe to be unjust. If this belief becomes widespread, people may lose respect for the law and may even disobey it. But in democratic societies the law itself provides ways to amend or abolish unjust laws. Law can be divided into two main branches: private law and public law. Private law deals with the rights and obligations people have in their relations with one another. Public law concerns the rights and obligations people have as members of society and as citizens. The major branches of public law are: constitutional law, criminal law, administrative law, international law.
The major branches of private law are: contract and commercial law, tort, property law, inheritance law, family law, company law.
CARD 16
The UK police
There are 52 police services, or police authorities in the United Kingdom. Each police service is employed and paid by their local governments or councils. The police services are completely independent of one another, and have their own policies, but they are always ready to go to each other's help. Each force has its Criminal Investigation Department (CID).
The Metropolitan Police Service (MPS) is the territorial police force responsible for law enforcement within Greater London, excluding the City of London which is the responsibility of the City of London Police.
MPS employees consist of uniformed police officers, Special Constables, civilian staff and Police Community Support Officers. The MPS was the first force to introduce these. Uniformed traffic wardens, who wear a uniform with yellow and black markings, are a distinct body from local authority civil enforcement officers. The former have greater powers that include being able to stop vehicles and redirect traffic at an incident. The heads of police forces are Chief Constables while the Metropolitan Police is headed by the Commissioner of Police. The lowest police rank in the British police is a constable.
In addition to the Headquarters at New Scotland Yard, there are 140 police stations in London. These range from large borough headquarters staffed around the clock every day to smaller stations which may be open to the public only during normal business hours, or on certain days of the week. The Metropolitan Police is not controlled by the local authority. It is responsible to the Home Secretary, and its chief officers are appointed by the central government.
Besides the regular police forces there are various police forces which protect the security of territories and properties of different public authorities. They include the British Transport Police, Civil Aviation Police, Manchester Dock Police and some others.
CARD 17
Classification of Law
Law can be divided up in a number of ways. It can be divided into ‘statute law’ and ‘common law ‘, and can also be divided into ‘public law’ and ‘private law’. Under this system, public law deals with relations between individuals and the state, and private law deals with relations between individuals (meaning individual people or organisations). Another way to think about the law and what it does is to look at what sort of behaviour or relationships it deals with” (for example, criminal law or administrative law ).The process of classification is a helpful way of obtaining an overview or general view of law for the purposes of teaching or learning , but it is a somewhat artificial exercise and does not produce an absolute and infallible categorisation of the law.Factual situations that arise in real life often do not fit neatly and exactly into only a single one of these categories of law. In fact, they are far more likely to involve two or more different topics of law.
However, for the purposes of teaching and learning , these classifications are useful in that they break up the whole mass of law into manageable portions, and they provide some framework and structure.
International law is sometimes also subdivided into:
– regional law, i.e. the law operating outside the country to regulate matters within a particular region of the world, e.g. South Pacific region, Asia/Pacific region, Western Europe; and
– universal law, i.e. the law operating outside a country to regulate matters wherever they occur in the world.
Domestic or municipal law is the law that operates within a country. Such law is national (applying throughout the whole country) or regional (applying within a particular section of the country such as a state, province, or district). At the most immediate level of administration, such regional law is often called local law, since it is law that operates only within a certain limited area or locality within a country, such as a subdistrict, shire, municipality, city, or town.
CARD 18
Government of the United States
Government of the United States is based on a written constitution. This constitution consists of a Preamble, seven Articles, and 27 Amendments. From this document, the entire federal government was created. It is a living document whose interpretation has changed over time. The amendment process is such that while not easily amended, US citizens are able to make necessary changes over time.
Three Branches of Government. The USA is a presidential republic. The US Constitution was adopted by Congress in 1787. The Constitution created three separate branches of government. Each branch has its own powers and areas of influence. At the same time, the Constitution created a 78 system of checks and balances that ensured no one branch would reign supreme. The three branches are:
Legislative Branch. This branch consists of the Congress (the Senate and the House of Representatives) which is responsible for making the federal laws. The Congress can pass the law anyway if it gets a two-thirds majority votes. The President can veto (reject) it. Congress also plays an informative role. It informs the public about different and important subjects.
Executive Branch. The executive power lies with the President of the United States who is given the job of executing, enforcing, and administering the laws and government. The president is to carry out the programmes of the Government, to recommend much of the legislation to the Congress.
Judicial Branch. The judicial power of the United States is vested in the Supreme Court – the highest judicial organ of the state and the federal courts. Their job is to interpret and apply US laws through cases brought before them. Another important power of the Supreme Court is that of Judicial Review whereby they can rule laws unconstitutional.
The Constitution is built on six basic principles: Popular Sovereignty; Limited Government; Separation of Powers; Checks and Balances; Judicial Review; Federalism.
CARD 19
Agrarian Law In the process of production and economic activity of agricultural producers have interlinked property, land, commercial, labor, organizational and administrative relations. They do not constitute an organic unity, but the specific activities in the agricultural sector necessitates their integration into one system. Thus, we can conclude that the agrarian law as a complex area to regulate agrarian relations of both traditional and special rules. The subject of agrarian law is a relationship based on private, state, municipal property and arising in the field of agriculture. Agrarian law as a specialized branch of law designed to regulate the relations established between actors in the agricultural sector. The provisions of the Agricultural Law regulated range and content of these rights and responsibilities. Thus, the nature of industrial and economic and socio-economic activities, feature social conditions of existence of agricultural producers is determined by the uniqueness of the subject of agrarian law as a field of law. Agrarian law as a system of rules governing a variety of complex social relations, which consist in the process of agricultural production. This coherent system of legal rules, blocks and elements are placed in hierarchical order. Agrarian law as a systematic branch regulates a group of complex social relations and is thus a comprehensive integrated area of law. It is associated with economic, civil, administrative, labor, land and other areas of law. The term "agrarian law" covered interrelated but not identical concepts. Agrarian law should be considered as a branch of law, the legal branch of science and academic discipline. Agrarian law as one of the branches of legal science - a system of scientific knowledge, legal ideas, theoretical views, concepts and knowledge about the laws of agrarian-legal regulation of social relations that are the subject of agrarian law. Agrarian law as an academic discipline is a system of scientific knowledge about the agrarian law - the branch of law and legislation designed to study the relevant institutions, particularly - legal.
CARD 20
Civil and Public Law
In many countries a distinction is made between private (or civil) and public law. Civil law concerns disputes among citizens within a country, and public law concerns disputes between citizens and the state, or between one state and another.
The main categories of English civil law are:
Law of Contracts; binding agreements between people (or companies);
Law of Torts: wrongs committed by one individual against another individual's person, property or reputation;
Law of Trusts, arrangements whereby a person administers property for another person's benefit rather than his own Land Law;
Probate Law: arrangements for dealing with property after the owner's death;
Family Law.
The main categories of public law are:
Criminal Law: wrongs which, even when committed against an individual, are considered to harm the well-being of society in general;
Constitutional Law: regulation of how the law operates and of the relation between private citizen and government;
International Law: regulation of relations between governments and also between private citizens of one country and those of another.
In codified systems there are codes that correspond to these categories, for example, France's Code Civil and Code Penal. Justinian's Roman codes covered such areas of law as contracts, property, inheritance, torts, the family, unjust enrichment, the law of persons, and legal remedies, but said little about criminal law. Consequently, most Continental criminal codes are entirely modern inventions.
Most countries make a rather clear distinction between civil and criminal procedures. Although some systems, including the English, allow a private citizen to bring a criminal prosecution against another citizen, criminal actions are nearly always started by the state. Civil actions, on the other hand, are usually started by the individuals.
In Anglo-American law, the party bringing a criminal action (that is, in most cases, the state) is called the prosecution, but the party bringing a civil action is the plaintiff. In both kinds of action, the other party is known as the defendant.
CARD 21
Continental Systems
Continental systems are known as codified or Civil Law legal systems. They have resulted from attempts by governments to produce a set of codes to govern every legal aspect of a citizen’s life. Thus it was necessary for the legislators to speculate quite comprehensively about human behaviour rather than simply looking at previous cases. In codifying their legal systems, many countries have looked to the examples of Revolutionary and Napoleonic France, whose legislators wanted to break with previous case law, which had often produced corrupt and biased judgements, and to apply new egalitarian social theories to the law.
The lawmakers of new nations sometimes wanted to show that the legal rights of their citizens originated in the state, not in local customs, and thus it was the state that was to make law, not the courts. In order to separate the roles of the legislature and judiciary, it was necessary to make laws that were clear and comprehensive. The lawmakers were often influenced by the model of the canon law of the Roman Catholic Church, but the most important models were the codes produced in the seventh century under the direction of the Roman Emperor Justinian. His aim had been to eliminate the confusion of centuries of inconsistent lawmaking by formulating a comprehensive system that would entirely replace existing law. Versions of Roman law had long influenced many parts of Europe, including the case law traditions of Scotland, but had little impact on English law.
It is important not to exaggerate the differences between these two traditions of law. For one thing, many case law systems, such as California's, have areas of law that have been comprehensively codified. For another, many countries can be said to have belonged to the Roman tradition long before codifying their laws, and large uncodified areas of the law still remain.
CARD 22
Burden of proof
In criminal litigation, the burden of proof is always on the state. The state must prove that the defendant is guilty. The defendant is assumed to be innocent; the defendant needs to prove nothing. (There are exceptions. If the defendant wishes to claim that he/she is insane, and therefore not guilty, the defendant bears the burden of proving his/her insanity. Other exceptions include defendants who claim self-defense or duress.)
In criminal litigation, the state must prove that the defendant satisfied each element of the statutory definition of the crime, and the defendant's participation, «beyond a reasonable doubt». It is difficult to put a valid numerical value on the probability that a guilty person really committed the crime, but legal authorities who do assign a numerical value generally say «at least 98% or 99%» certainty of guilt.
In civil litigation, the burden of proof is initially on the plaintiff. However, there are a number of technical situations in which the burden shifts to the defendant. For example, when the plaintiff has made a prima facie case, the burden shifts to the defendant to refute or rebut the plaintiff's evidence.
In civil litigation, the plaintiff wins if the preponderance of the evidence favors the plaintiff. For example, if the jury believes that there is more than a 50% probability that the defendant was negligent in causing the plaintiff's injury, the plaintiff wins. This is a very low standard, compared to criminal law. It is too low a standard, especially considering that the defendant could be ordered to pay millions of dollars to the plaintiff(s).
A few tort claims (e.g., fraud) require that plaintiff prove his/her case at a level of «clear and convincing evidence», which is a standard higher than preponderance, but less than «beyond a reasonable doubt».
CARD 23
Sources of Law in the USA
The unique characteristic of American law is that a very substantial part of it is not to be found in statutes enacted by legislatures but rather in cases decided by the courts.
In the USA statutes must be in keeping with the constitutions — federal and state — and the courts can overrule a statute that is found to violate constitution provisions. Statutes and constitutions are classified as "written law". Also include under this heading are treaties that by the federal constitution are also a part of the law of the land. Case law, as opposed to written law, is not set forth formally but is derived from an analysis of each case that uncovers what legal propositions the case stands for. It is nor proper to call this "unwritten" law because it is in fact in writing. However, it must be distinguished from statutory law in that it is not the product the legislature but is rather the product of the courts. When a court decides a case particularly upon an appeal from a lower-court decision, the court writes an opinion setting forth among other things the reasons for its decision. From these written opinions rules of law can be deduced, and these make up the body of what is called case law or common law. The basic characteristic of the common law is that a case once decided establishes a precedent that will be followed by the courts when similar controversies are later presented.
A third source of law is administrative law. Federal, state, and local administrative agencies make law by promulgating rules and regulations as well as by making decisions concerning matters under their jurisdiction.
CARD 24
Types of legal professions. Who is who in the law?
If you are prosecuted for a crime in Britain, you may meet the following people during your process through the courts:
Magistrates. Magistrates are unpaid judges, usually chosen from well-respected people in the local community. They are guided on points of law by an official, the clerk. There are magistrates’ courts in most towns.
Solicitors. After the accused person has been arrested, the first person he or she needs to see is a solicitor. Solicitors are qualified lawyers who advise the accused and help prepare the defence case. The solicitor may represent the accused in court. A person who is too poor to afford a solicitor will usually get Legal Aid — financial help from the state.
Barristers. In more serious cases it is usual for the solicitor to hire a barrister to defend the accused. The barrister is trained in the law and in the skills required to argue a case in court. The barrister for the defence will be confronted by his or her opposite number, the prosecuting barrister who represents the state.
Jurors. A jury consists of twelve men and women from the local community. They sit in the Crown Court, with a judge, and listen to witnesses for the defence and prosecution before deciding whether the accused is guilty or innocent. In Britain the person is innocent unless found guilty: the prosecution has the burden of establishing guilt.
Judges. Judges are trained lawyers, nearly always ex—barristers, who sit in the Crown Court (and appeal courts). The judge rules on points of law, and makes sure that the trial is conducted properly. He or she does not decide on the guilt or innocence of the accused — that is the jury’s job. However, if the jury find the accused guilty, then the judge will pass sentence.
Coroners. Coroners have medical or legal training (or both) and inquire into violent or unnatural deaths.
Clerks of the court. Clerks look after administrative and legal matters in the courtroom.
CARD 25
Criminal Law
Criminal law is categorized as a part of public law - the law regulating the relations between citizens and the state. Crimes can be thought of as acts which the state considers to be wrong and which can be punished by the state.
In many legal systems it is an important principle that a person cannot be considered guilty of a crime until the state proves he committed it. The suspect himself need not prove anything, although he will of course help himself if he can show evidence of his innocence. The state must prove his guilt according to high standards, for each crime there are precise elements which must be proven. In codified systems, these elements are usually recorded in statutes. In common law systems, the elements of some crimes are detailed in statutes; others, known as - common law crimes", are still described mostly in case law. Even where there is a precise statute, the case law interpreting the statute may be very important since the circumstances of each crime may be very different.
For example, the crime of theft is defined in England under the 1968 Theft act as: "dishonestly appropriating property belonging to another with the intention of permanently depriving the other of it".
There are further definitions of each element of the definition, such as appropriating, which may mean taking away, destroying, treating as your own, and selling. The same Act also defines in detail crimes such as burglary (entering someone’s land without permission intending to steal or commit an act of violence) and robbery (using force or threats in order to steal from someone). Although the Theft Act was intended to cover many possible circumstances, it is still often necessary for the courts to refer to case law in order to apply the Act to a new case.
CARD 26
Judiciary
Criminal Proceedings There are two courts of trial and two courts of appeal for criminal proceedings in England, Wales and Northern Ireland. The courts of trial are the Magistrates’ Court and the Crown Court, and the courts of appeal are the Court of Appeal and the House of Lords.
The Magistrates’ Court The most common type of law court in England and Wales is the Magistrates’ Court. The Magistrates’ Court is the lower court of trial. It deals with summary offences. More serious criminal cases (indictable offences) then go to the Crown Court. Civil cases are dealt with in County courts. Magistrates’ Courts have limited powers of penally but may commit a convicted offender to the Crown Court if it is considered that the powers of the Magistrates’ Court are insufficient. Approximately 95% of all prosecutions are dealt with in the Magistrates’ Courts.
Juvenile Courts are composed of specially trained magistrates. They try most charges against children and young persons under the age of 18 years.
The Crown Court. The Crown Court is the senior court of trial for criminal offences. The courts are established at various centres throughout the country. The courts are presided over by either a High Court Judge, Circuit Judge or Recorder who sits with a jury. The Crown Court for the City of London is the Central Criminal Court, also known as the Old Bailey. The Crown Court may also hear appeals against conviction and/or sentence for some offences dealt with at the Magistrates’ Court.
The Court of Appeal. The Court of Appeal hears appeals from criminal cases heard in the Crown Courts.
The House of Lords. The House of Lords is the most senior and final court of appeal.
Civil Proceedings. Civil proceedings consist of litigation about property, family matters and actions to obtain financial redress for damage to property and personal injury. The courts of trial for such
County Courts are local courts and are presided over by a single Judge. The High Court of Justice is situated in London. Some cases before the High Court of Justice may be heard before a jury.
CARD 27
Characteristics of Constitutions
Every state has a constitution, since every state functions on the basis of certain rules and principles. It has often been asserted that the United States has a written constitution but that the constitution of Great Britain is unwritten. This is true, but only in the sense that in the United States there is a formal document called the Constitution, whereas there is no such document in Great Britain. In fact, however, many parts of the British Constitution exist in written form, whereas important aspects of the American Constitution are wholly unwritten.
Written constitutions can concern themselves exclusively or prevalently with the organization of government or deal extensively with the rights of people and with the goals of governmental action. Written constitutions are said to be “normative” when their binding principles are more or less all observed in the actual operations of the political system. This applies to the Constitutions of the United States, Canada, and of some western European countries. Other constitutions are said to be “nominal,” because they are largely or in substantial parts disregarded and do not provide insight into the real functioning of the system. This is often the case with constitutions of rapidly developing countries and of countries ruled by a one-person or a one-party dictatorship.
Constitutions, written or unwritten, must be distinguished according to whether they are “rigid” or “flexible.” Rigid are those constitutions at least some part of which cannot be modified in ordinary legislative way. Flexible are those whose rules can all be modified through the simple procedure by which statutes are enacted. The United States has a rigid constitution, because proposals to amend the constitutional document adopted in 1788 can only be added through a complex procedure of majority vote in each house of Congress. Great Britain has a flexible constitution because all of its constitutional institutions and rules can be modified by an act of Parliament.
CARD 28
The Judicial Branch of the Government
The judicial branch of the federal government is headed by the U.S. Supreme Court, which interprets the meaning of the Constitution and of federal laws. It consists of nine justices appointed for life by the president with the consent of the Senate.
It has appellate jurisdiction for the lower federal courts and from state courts of last resort if a federal question is involved. The court has original jurisdiction over cases involving foreign ambassadors, ministers, consuls and cases to which a state is a party.
Three types of cases commonly reach the Supreme Court: cases involving litigants of different states, cases involving the interpretation of federal law and cases involving the interpretation of the Constitution. The court can take official action with as few as six judges joining in deliberation, and a majority vote of the entire court is decisive; a tie vote sustains a lower-court decision. Often the minority judges write a dissenting report.
The Supreme Court has often been criticised for its decisions. In the 1930s, for example, a conservative court overturned much of President Franklin D. Roosevelt's New Deal legislation. In the area of civil rights it has received criticism from various groups at different times.
After a 1954 ruling against school segregation, Southern political leaders attacked it harshly. Later, they were joined by Northern conservatives. A number of decisions involving the pre-trial rights of prisoners also came under attack on the ground that the court had made it difficult to convict criminals.
Below the Supreme Court are the U.S. courts of appeals. Special courts handle property and contract damage suits against the United States, review customs rulings, and apply the Uniform Code of Military Justice.
Each state has at least one federal district court and at least one federal judge. District judges are appointed for life by the president with Senate consent. Appeals from district-court decisions are carried to the courts of appeals.
CARD 29
The US Congress
The Congress of the United States is the highest lawmaking body in the United States and one of the oldest national legislatures in the world. The U.S. Congress consists of two houses - the Senate and the House of Representatives. A member of the Senate is referred to as a senator, and a member of the House of Representatives is called a representative or congressman or congresswoman. The general process for making a bill into a law is described in the Constitution. The first step in the legislative process is the introduction of a bill to the Congress.
There are 17 Senate committees, with 70 subcommittees, and 23 House committees, with 104 subcommittees. A bill is first considered in a subcommittee, where it may be accepted, amended, or rejected. If the members of the subcommittee agree to move a bill forward, it is reported to the full committee, where the process is repeated again. If the full committee votes to approve the bill, it is reported to the House or the Senate. When the bill comes up for
53
consideration, the House has a very structured debate process. Each member who wishes to speak has only a few minutes, and the number and kind of amendments are usually limited. In the Senate, debate on most bills is unlimited - Senators may speak to issues other than the bill under consideration during their speeches, and any amendment can be introduced. A bill must pass both houses of the Congress before it goes to the President for consideration. Once debate has ended and any amendments to the bill have been approved, the full membership will vote for or against the bill. The bill is then sent to the President. When receiving a bill from the Congress, the President has several options. If the President agrees with the bill, he or she may sign it into law. If the President disagrees with the bill, he may veto it and send it back to the Congress. The Congress may override the veto with a two-thirds vote of each chamber, at which point the bill becomes law and is printed.
CARD 30
Classification of Crimes
Crimes are usually classified as treason, felony, or misdemeanor. The fundamental distinction between felonies and misdemeanors rests with the penalty and the power of imprisonment. In general, a misdemeanor is an offence for which a punishment other than death or imprisonment in the state prison is prescribed by law. The term "degree of crime" refers to distinctions in the culpability of an offense because of the circumstances surrounding its commission. Crimes are sometimes divided according to their nature into crimes mala in se and crimes mala prohibita; the former class comprises those acts that are thought to be immoral or wrong in themselves, or naturally evil, such as murder, rape, arson, burglary, larceny, and the like; the latter class embraces those acts that are not naturally evil but are prohibited by statute because they infringe on the rights of others (e.g., acts in restraint of trade that have been made criminal under antitrust legislation). For example, in the United States, the power to define crimes and set punishment for them rests with the legislatures of the United States, the several states, and the territories, the principal authority being that of the individual states. This power in the states is restricted by the federal Constitution, e.g., in the Fourteenth Amendment and in prohibitions against acts of attainder (an act of attainder is a legislative declaration that a particular individual is guilty of a crime) and against expost facto laws (laws that retroactively declare certain actions to be criminal). State constitutions may also limit state legislative action. The courts cannot look further into the propriety of a penal statute than to ascertain whether the legislature has the power to enact it. Administrative rules may have the force of law, and violations of such rules are punishable as public offenses, provided that the legislature has made such violations misdemeanors.
Задание: перевести предложения по юридической тематике с русского языка на английский.
Translate the sentences from Russian into English.
1. Свидетель обвинения был подвергнут перекрестному допросу.
2. Для практикующих юристов наиболее важным является различие между гражданским и уголовным правом.
3. Сторона обвинения, как и сторона защиты, может ходатайствовать о рассмотрении дела судом присяжных.
4. Участие в судебном процессе Королевского прокурора необходимо в случае применения оружия или нападения на лицо при исполнении служебных обязанностей, например, полицейского.
5. У стороны обвинения были доказательства вины подсудимого.
6. Срок задержания ограничивается 48 часами, но может быть продлен на 24 часа с письменной санкции Королевского прокурора.
7. Королевская прокурорская служба была учреждена в Англии и Уэльсе на основании Закона о преследовании правонарушений 1985 года.
8. Mens rea на Латыни обозначает «преступный умысел» и составляет ментальный элемент преступления, включающий намерение совершить противоправное деяние.
9 Количество профессиональных магазинных воров всего 3%, однако на них приходится 15% хищений, совершаемых покупателями.
10. По мировой статистике, на воровство со стороны сотрудников магазина приходится 48% от общего числа магазинных краж.
11. Наиболее часто магазинные воришки похищают продукты и косметику.
12. Коронер — это судья, имеющий медицинское и юридическое образование и расследующий причины смерти, происшедшей при подозрительных обстоятельствах.
13. Судья не выносит решение о виновности или невиновности подсудимого, это задача присяжных.
14. Страны с гражданской правовой системой имеют полные, постоянно обновляемые, письменные своды законов.
15. Судьями в Королевском суде Великобритании, как правило, являются бывшие барристеры.
16. Гражданские слушания касаются в основном тяжб о правах собственности, семейных дел и возмещения убытков, нанесенных имуществу и здоровью.
17. Высшим апелляционным судом и последней судебной инстанцией в Великобритании является Палата лордов.
18. В судах для несовершеннолетней мировой судьи имеют специальное образование.
19. Если люди не могут сосуществовать мирно, нужно принуждение, закон принуждает, используя наказание.
20. Когда государство расширяет права одних групп населения, оно неизбежно сокращает права других групп.
21.Основными целями создания законов являются регулирование межличностных отношений и контроль над собственностью.
22. В Великобритании обвиняемые считаются невиновными, до тех пор, пока не доказано обратное, доказывание вины возложено на сторону обвинения.
23.Солиситорами являются квалифицированные юристы, консультирующие обвиняемых и вырабатывающие для них линию защиты.
24. Мировыми судьями обычно являются наиболее уважаемые граждане данного сообщества, не получающие денег за свою деятельность.
25. Традиция общего права возникла в Англии в Средние века; основным понятием являлся судебный прецедент.
26. Палата Лордов не может наложить вето на законопроект, предложенный Палатой Общин, но может отложить его рассмотрение максимум на год.
27. Определение британской формы правления как «конституционная монархия» может показаться странным, так как в стране нет полной написанной конституции.
28. После того как законопроект принят обеими палатами Парламента, его передают Королеве для получения Королевского согласия.
29. В уголовном праве намерение и мотив личности разграничиваются.
30. Actus reus является латинским термином для обозначения виновного деяния и представляет собой физический компонент совершения преступления.
31. Реабилитация имеет целью преобразование правонарушителя в полноценного члена общества.
32. Срок заключения в тюрьму может варьироваться и составлять от нескольких суток до пожизненного.
33. Высшая мера наказания используется в некоторых юрисдикциях за самые серьезные преступления.
34. Методом правового регулирования в гражданском праве является метод равенства участников правоотношений.
35. Римское право было правовой системой, применяемой в континентальной Европе вплоть до 18 века.
36. Предметом гражданского права являются имущественные отношения, а также связанные или несвязанные с ними личные отношения.
37. Кодекс Наполеона был попыткой создать правовую систему, согласно которой все люди были равны.
38. Основными источниками земельного права являются Конституция РФ, Гражданский и Земельный кодексы.
39. Важную роль в земельном праве играют нормы административного и экологического права.
40. Земельное право регулирует отношения по владению, охране и использованию земельных ресурсов.
41. Административное право Канады является отраслью публичного права и затрагивает такие сферы как коммуникация, транспорт, строительство, школьное образование и т. д.
42. Административное право регулирует общественные отношения в сфере управленческой деятельности государственных органов.
43. Источниками административного права США являются конституция, законы, судебные решения и акты административных учреждений.
44. Деликтное право отличается от уголовного права тем, что причиной противоправных действий может быть халатность, а не умышленные и преступные действия.
45. Основными категориями английского частного права являются договорное право, деликтное право, земельное право и семейное право.
46. Исторические источники права включают культурные обычаи, общее право, судебные прецеденты и законодательство.
47. Одним из наиболее важных различий является различие частного или гражданского права и публичного права.
48. В Шотландии полицейские могут взять отпечатки пальцев у любого человека, достигшего четырнадцати лет, без постановления суда.
49. В полицейском участке несовершеннолетние лица не обязаны отвечать на вопросы, если отсутствуют родители, педагоги или социальные работники.
50. Полицейский имеет право обыскать человека, если он подозревает, что у него есть наркотики, оружие или украденные вещи.
51. Считается, что, как правило, барристеры выполняют работу в судах, а солиситоры в офисах.
52.В Великобритании и некоторых ее бывших колониях существуют два типа юристов, оказывающих правовую помощь населению.
53. Судоустройство представляет собой систему судов, которые толкуют и применяют закон от имени государства.
54. Если вы стали свидетелем нападения или кражи, увидели или услышали что-то подозрительное, как можно быстрее свяжитесь с полицией.
55. В случае серьезных преступлений в английской провинции помощь оказывает департамент уголовных расследований.
56. Основными задачами полиции являются предотвращение преступлений и беспорядков, задержание правонарушителей, защита жизни и собственности граждан.
57. Юристы имеют различные точки зрения на происхождение и источники права.
58. Полиция разыскивает подозреваемых, используя информацию, полученную от потерпевших и свидетелей.
59. Присутствие полицейских может оказаться сдерживающим фактором и предотвратить правонарушения.
60. В некоторых странах полиция может налагать штраф за нарушение правил вождения без суда.
61. Существуют 26 поправок к американской конституции, первые десять из которых называются Билль о правах.
62. В состав Верховного суда США входят девять судей, назначаемых президентом пожизненно.
63. Президент Соединенных штатов может наложить вето на закон, предлагаемый Конгрессом.
64. Незнание законов не может считаться серьезным аргументом при их нарушении.
65. Суды являются завершающей стадией в расследовании уголовных преступлений и гражданских правонарушений.
66. Правительства используют силы полиции для расследования преступлений и поимки преступников.
67. Даже в демократических странах актуальным остается вопрос о защите прав заключенных.
68. В Университете Кембриджа право изучается с тринадцатого века. В зависимости от уровня специализации выпускникам присваивается степень бакалавра или магистра юриспруденции.
69. Основными общечеловеческими ценностями являются человеческая жизнь, личная свобода и достоинство.
70. Вопрос о правах человека является ключевым в стратегии борьбы с международным терроризмом.
71. Все люди в равной степени располагают правами человека, исключая всякого рода дискриминацию.
72. В мире до сих пор есть кризисные зоны, где нарушаются права человека.
73.Всеобщая Декларация прав человека была принята 10 декабря 1948 года Генеральной Ассамблеей ООН.
74. Обладают ли люди правами, не зависящими от традиций и культуры того общества, к которому они принадлежат?
75. Соотношение закона и морали связано с проблемой прав человека и вызывает много споров.
76. Права человека являются всеобщими и не зависят от расы, религии, пола или страны проживания.
77. Высший Европейский суд включает 15 членов, и обеспечивает соответствие общеевропейского и национальных законодательств.
78. Европейский парламент состоит из 626 членов, избираемых прямым голосованием.
79. Великобритания не имеет единой правовой системы; на правовую систему Шотландии сильное влияние оказало Римское право.
80. Совет Европы принимает важные политические решения и представляет интересы стран-участниц.
81. Если основные элементы судебных дел были такими же, то судья выносил одинаковые решения о вине или невиновности.
82. Общее право развивалось постепенно на протяжении всей истории Англии; в нем обычаи и судебные решения были так же важны, как и правительственные законы.
83. Исторически существуют две основные правовые традиции: одна основывается на английском или общем праве, а другая – на континентальном или римском праве.
84. Конституционное право определяет взаимоотношения личности и государства, регламентирует государственную власть в стране.
85. Конституция государства, как правило, представляет собой письменный документ, имеющий высшую юридическую силу.
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86. Самая первая конституция была написана в Сан-Марино на латыни и состояла из шести книг.
87. Если полиция намеревается провести обыск в частной собственности, необходимо получить на это ордер.
88. Когда совершается преступление, полицейские должны идентифицировать жертву, определить причину, место и время преступления, найти свидетелей.
89. Государство создает законы для своих граждан и использует систему судов и полицию для их применения.
90. Соединенное Королевство является конституционной монархией. Во главе государства находится король или королева.