Иностранный язык

Выберете правильный вариант ответа:
1. Lance is ….. knowledgeable on this subject.
1) smartly
2) powerfully
3) firmly
4) highly
2. I need a good explanation of all the costs ….. in buying a new car.
1) affected
2) involved
3) concerned
4) implied
3. There was a ….. debate about the Middle East, then they moved to a vote.
1) lively
2) flexible
3) main
4) nimble
4. The doctor told him to lose weight quickly or pay the ….. later in life.
1) fee
2) fine
3) price
4) cost
5. Jet lag causes problems with our ….. clock.
1) biological
2) botanical
3) natural
4) rhythmical
6. This species of seagull is not a …. of the island, but will sometimes rest here a while.
1) neighbour
2) national
3) citizen
4) resident
7. Doesn't it …… you as strange that it's the middle of May and it's snowing?
1) hit
2) occur
3) strike
4) touch
8. I didn't stay behind because I wanted to, I did so because it was my …..
1) work
2) duty
3) shift
4) chore 9. Last week we .... to Warsaw.
1) go
2) goes
3) went
4) had gone
10. I .... the film we saw at the cinema on Wednesday.
1) doesn't like
2)haven't liked
3) didn't like
4) don’t like
11. My mother .... never been to a cricket match.
1)hadn't
2)haven't
3) has
4) was
12. Joanna .... her new mobile phone.
1) is losing
2) loses
3) has lost
13. .... ever seen a comet?
1) Did you
2) Have you
3) Do you
4) Does you
14. If I were rich, I .... buy a huge house in Somerset.
1) will
2) shall
3) would
4) should
15. They .... pass their exam if they studied hard.
1) would
2) will
3) did
4) do
16. I wish I .... play a musical instrument.
1) can 2) could 3) should
4) will
17. I have been living in Madrid ...... 1). since ten years. 2). ten years ago. 3). for ten years.
4). ten years. 18. This is the ..... thing I have ever done. . 1). harder 2). hardest 3). hard 4). more hard 19. Have you finished with the newspaper ...... 1). still? 2). already? 3). now? 4). yet? 20. If I want to pass my exam, I ...... ...... study harder. 1) will have to 2). would have to 3). had to 4). want to 21. Michael is ...... his sister. 1). not so clever than 2). not as clever than 3). not as clever as 4). not so clever as
22. What angered me wasn't his resignation but the ….in which he did it.
1) method
2) manner
3) aspect
4) bearing
23. If you can't make … what's written, change the zoom level and it'll become clearer.
1) for
2) off
3) up
4) out
24. There's a …. range of issues that we need to discuss as soon as possible.
1) far
2) ample
3) wide
4) high
25. Despite being ….. in the battle, the solider fought on and was awarded a medal for bravery.
1) enraged
2). wounded
3) flawed
4) bruised
26. The rain will …. for most of the morning, but we are expecting a brighter afternoon.
1) persist
2) insist
3) resist
4) consist
27. In the mating season, the male of the species calls out with a …. gu-gu sound.
1) separate
2) distinctive
3) contrasting
4) individual
28. Marie Curie, one of the best-known ….. in working with radiation, died in 1934.
1) debutants
2) revolutionaries
3) pioneers
4) rebels
29. Deep sea oil exploration is a dirty and dangerous …...
1) affair
2) situation
3) case
4) business
30. Much of the neighbourhood was demolished in the 1940s when living … had deteriorated.
1) situations
2) conditions
3) circumstances
4) states
31. Scientists are yet to understand the full nutritional ….. of the humble olive.
1) favours
2) helps
3) goods
4) benefits
32. You can come and …..us performing this operation, if you want.
1) discover
2) gaze
3) observe
4) look
33. Bears used to be very …. in this part of the country, but nobody has seen one for ten years.
1) sparse
2) broad
3) thorough
4) widespread
34. Ben was ….. to the court for jury duty, but took a doctor's note with him and was excused.
1) pulled
2) assembled
3) summoned
4) requested
35. The police …… four states in pursuit of the bank robber.
1) crossed
2) journeyed
3) chased
4) travelled
36. After three years of ….., the country's economy is finally looking a lot healthier.
1) letdown
2) demise
3) overdraft
4) recession
37. We altered our final ….. of yearly profits due to more accurate advertising and marketing costs.
1) forecast
2) expectancy
3) expectation
4) wishes
38. Two wolves ran through the forest in ….. of a deer.
1) following
2) chase
3) huntingъ
4) pursuit
39. The economy touches every ….. of our lives.
1) piece
2) field
3) division
4) aspect
40. Like most safety features, the air bag is very rarely used but when …. upon, must operate perfectly.
1) called
2) required
3) pulled
4) requested
41. The cup will remain here at the clubhouse for a month on ….. before being sent to the museum.
1) display
2) parade
3) exposition
4) stage
42. Jed ran the whole ……after his father died and left him the company.
1) industry
2) affair
3) work
4) business
43. The garden is a paradise for flowers in particular. We have seventeen ….. of roses.
1) varieties
2) breeds
3) families
4) mutations
44. The terrible weather ….. in severe traffic delays and the closure of the airport.
1) resulted
2) concluded
3) met
4) ended
45. "What is ……," Clarissa said, "I feel I'm being ignored."
1) extra
2) more
3) else
4) plus
46. Thomas graduated with a specialist degree in the …. of criminology.
1) aspect
2) field
3) sector
4) division
47. Lasers can measure distances with incredible …...
1) care
2) precision
3) adjustment
4) attention
48. My two cousins were so excited at the start of the war, they ran downtown and ……up immediately.
1) wrote
2) signed
3) drew
4) brought
49. This machine …… the user's eye and can confirm identity.
1) regards
2) gazes
3) scans
4) views
50. The inquiry into the accident will be ….. by Malcolm Jones, a former army general.
1) overseen
2) overlooked
3) overdrawn
4) overpowered
51. Though Carla's remarks seem insulting, if you see them in ……. they're actually quite innocent.
1) situation
2) context
3) relation
4) background
52. Even early in the city's life, the …… for knowledge led to the founding of a university.
1) quest
2) pursuit
3) gathering
4) chase
53. The three teenagers spent a cold night on the …… mountain before rescuers arrived.
1) exposed
2) displayed
3) overlooked
4) revealed
54. Politicians have been arguing about the reasons for the ….. in the number of unemployed.
1) decline
2) descent
3) recession
4) weakening
55. Charles Lindbergh was one of the early …….in powered flight and crossed the Atlantic in 1927.
1) inventors
2) pioneers
3) chiefs
4) creators
56. We used advertising to …… interest in the product and then educated people on how to use it.
1) introduce
2) adopt
3) breed
4) generate
57. It never …… to me that Mike and Cherie's marriage was in any trouble.
1) reveal
2) occurred
3) concerned
4) struck
58. All attempts to reach Darren at home on his phone ……. with failure.
1) met
2) finished
3) put
4) resulted
59. Any problems …… from the new contract are not my concern. I warned against signing it.
1) producing
2) arising
3) deriving
4) arriving
60. The director was accused of being ……. in the way he ran the company.
1) inflexible
2) inevitable
3) infallible
4) inflatable
61. In the tough economic climate, the company GTV has ……..by over 40%.
1) sunk
2) belittled
3) reduced
4) shrunk
62. Modern conditions such as diabetes and alcohol abuse has caused life ….. to fall in some countries.
1) expectancy
2) expectation
3) prediction
4) forecast
63. The words of his resignation letter ……. he was unhappy with several of his former colleagues.
1) signified
2) implied
3) involved
4) inferred
64. Thomas never ……. the negative role he had in taking over the company
1) located
2) disclosed
3) exposed
4) uncovered
65. Dr Hartson is an animal expert, but I don't believe the …… of his expertise is as wide as you think.
1) scope
2) width
3) scale
4) weight
66. We understand it's late and we don't mean to ……, but we have some important questions for you.
1) inconvenience
2) impose
3) interrupt
4) interfere
67. On arriving at the theatre, the Queen was presented with a large …. of tulips by a young girl.
1) gathering
2) bouquet
3) bunch
4) clump
68. The suspect's complaints about his treatment by police were ….. and he was taken into custody.
1) noted
2) viewed
3) mentioned
4) remarked
69. "We will surely ……. our problems if we work together on a solution."
1) sink
2) weaken
3) lessen
4) concentrate
70. We paid the lawyer to …….up a totally new will, one which left the three boys much better off.
1) draw
2) bring
3) sign
4) make
71. The …….. time for making decisions is lunchtime.
1) fine
2) optimum
3) peak
4) maximum
72. The elderly patient was considered too ……..to survive an operation.
1) tenuous
2) brittle
3) frail
4) insane
73. Last Sunday, the highest temperature in ……. history was registered.
1) marked
2) accounted
3) noted
4) recorded
74. Milk is an important ……. of calcium and vitamin D and is an important part of any diet.
1) source
2) ancestor
3) base
4) root
75. The customs officer was suspicious and called the man over to …… his luggage more closely.
1) inspect
2) view
3) gaze at
4) glimpse
76. Are these old plates of ……. importance or can I put them into storage?
1) main
2) lively
3) vital
4) urgent
77. The humble bee, so often …… for granted, plays a key role in agriculture.
1) taken
2) collected
3) given
4) put
78. Singers take care of their voice to guarantee ……… performance.
1) high
2) summit
3) optimum
4) prime
79. Even if you can't quit smoking, you should do your best to at least …….down a bit.
1) cut
2) break
3) push
4) make
80. The charity dance raised $5000 and the hospital was able to buy a new heart …..
1) scanner
2) scope
3) sight
4) viewer
81. It is often only through long experiments of trial and ……. that scientific progress is made.
1) failure
2) error
3) mistake
4) fault
82. The working day in the factory is divided into day and night ……..
1) works
2) duties
3) shifts
4) labours
83. The job is tough, lonely and yes, on …….., even depressing.
1) time
2) moment
3) times
4) occasion
84. The shopping centre was built surrounded by a vast ….. of concrete for parking.
1) scope
2) field
3) extent
4) range
85. Every person in this room has ……. an important part in the success of the company.
1) played
2) added
3) made
4) put
86. All I can say at the moment is: Long ......... the company!
1) live
2) lives
3) lived
4) living
87. Sometimes I wish I ......... what the future holds.
1) know
2) known
3) knew
4) knows
88. And at other times I'm glad I ......... know what the future holds.
1) didn't
2) doesn't
3) hadn't
4) don't
89. Let's ......... there tomorrow if it's fine.
1) going
2) gone
3) go
4) goes
90. Try ......... the door really hard if you want to open it.
1) pushing
2) push
3) pushes
4) pushed
91. Try ......... these irregular verbs by next week.
1) learned
2) to learn
3) learns
4) learning
92. I really appreciate your ......... me at this difficult time.
1) helps
2) help
3) helped
4) helping
93. I'll finish now and I look forward to ......... you again soon.
1) seeing
2) see
3) seen
4) having seen
94. Please come back soon and ......... the work you started two weeks ago.
1) finished
2) finishing
3) finish
4) finishes
95. ......... me if I've told you this before.
1) Stopping
2) Stopped
3) Stops
4) Stop
96. В данном предложении выделенное слово является: The sound of ringing bell was very loud. 1) Participle I 2) Participle II 3) Gerund 4) Adjective 97. If I were you, … 1) I wouldn’t drink so much coffee. 2) I would have drink so much coffee. 3) I didn’t drink so much coffee. 4) I would like to drink so many coffee. e) I hadn’t got any coffee at home. 98. Найдите антоним прилагательному «pleasant»: 1) unpleasant 2) impleasant 3) displeasant 4) mispleasant 99. She has been playing tennis…an hour. 1) in 2) at 3) for 4) during 100. The weather is… nice today! 1) so 2) such 3) such a 4) a bit
101. Would you like_____________ piece of cake?
1) other
2) another
3)more
4) others
102. She died two weeks after the accident, never regaining _______.
1) consciousness
2) sense
3) conscience
4) sensibility
103. His _______told him it’s necessary to tell the police the truth.
1) consciousness
2) sense
3) conscience
4) sensibility
105. This large Bengal tiger _____only in India and Pakistan.
1) living
2) lives
3) live
4) has lived
106. The news I have received _____good.
1) is
2) are
3) be
4) was
107. Which do you like ___________tea or coffee?
1) good
2) better
3) best
4) bad
108. His father made him _______his bedroom.
1) tidy
2) tidying
3) to tidy
4) to tidying
109. "Mum, did you wash my blue shirt?" " Well, I washed two shirts, but _______of them was blue."
1) both
2) neither
3) either
4) none
110.The season ticket _______you to use all of the gym's facilities at no further cost.
1) grants
2) allows
3) helps
4) affords
111.____________ Volga is the longest river in Europe.
1)---
2)The
3)A
4) An
112. _______the end of the concert, the orchestra took a bow.
1) At
2) In
3) By
4) On
113. The teacher made me _______the exercise again.
1) to do
2) do
3) doing
4) that I'll do
114. You've made _________mistakes in your dictation.
1) too many
2) so much
3) very little
4) a lot
115. He decided to save some money and put _______in the bank.
1) it
2) their
3) them
4) its
116. I don’t like parties _______finish late.
1) who
2)what
3) which
4) so that
117. Have you ever been _______Scotland?
1) in
2) at
3) to
4) into
118. I hate__________.
1) a rainy weather
2) rainy weather
3) the rainy weather
4) rainy weathers
119. Don’t be angry ______ me, please.
1) At
2) about
3) with
4) for
120. ____________a post-office near here?
1) Is
2) Is there
3) Where there
4) There is
121. The police _________________ the criminal yet.
1) have caught
2) didn’t catch
3) didn't caught
4)haven’t caught
122. Shall I make the final choice right now? – No, you _______.
1) mustn't
2) can’t
3) needn’t
4) couldn’t
123. He said that he_________ to Egypt.
1) never had been
2) never was
3) has ever been
4) had never been
124. Before we parted Wi1son asked me _____________I wou1d like to go and see his house one day.
1) that
2) which
3) about
4) if
125. “Homo sum et nil humanum no me alienum esse puto” is the motto of the belief system called _______.
1)humanism
2) humanities
3) humanity
4) human
126. The monuments belong to the heritage of the whole of _______.
1) humanism
2) humanities
3) humanity
4) human
127. Jim’s ____________sister wants to become an economist.
1) elder
2)older
3) old
4) the oldest
128. She went to bed _______she was tired.
1) on account of
2) for
3) due to
4) since
129. He pays _______ _______attention to what I say that it makes me angry.
1) such many
2) so little
3) so few
4) such much
130. This car is________. I can’t afford it.
1) cheap
2) expensive
3) bad
4) good
131. I’ve never heard_____________.
1) her to sing
2)her sing
3) she sings
4) she is singing
132. She was the sort of woman who was always bothering about__________.
1)What other people would think
2)what would other people think
3) what would think other people
4) what other people think
133. “You can always turn _______me for help”, he said to me.
1) on
2) to
3) out
4) down
134. ______breakfast on the train was awful.
1) a
2) an
3) the
4) ---
135. This really is _______food I’ve ever eaten.
1) worst
2) the worst
3) bad
4) the bad
136. He could open the lock _______.
1) easy
2) easily
3) most easy
4) easieast
137. The waiter had to change the plates several times, _______?
1) had he
2) hadn’t he
3) did he
4) didn’t he
138. My mother always gives me _______.
1) good advices
2) the good advice
3) a good advice
4) good advice
139. The party ended _______midnight.
1) until
2) at
3) on
4) in
140. _______you _______if the city workers are on strike tomorrow?
1) Have/heard
2) Are/hearing
3) Will/hear
4) Do/hear
141. Jane is a friend of__________.
1) ours
2) our
3) us
4) we
142. Our teacher _______the text again.
1) made us to read
2) make us red
3) made us reading
4) made us read
143. “________we go out for dinner?” “Certainly!”
1) Would
2) Can
3) Shall
4) Need
144. We are going to the beach ______the weekend.
1) in
2) on
3) at
4) by
145. When ______in London?
1) have you arrived
2) did you arrive
3) you have arrived
4) you arrived
146. I’am a bit forgetful, _______?
1) am I not
2) am I
3) I am not
4) isn’t it
147. I am sure that Jim is ______________lies.
1) pronouncing
2) telling
3) talking
4) saying
148. Let’s go to the disco, ________we?
1) don’t we
2) let us
3) won’t we
4) shall we
149. “________did you go last night?” “To my friend’s place”.
1) What
2) Which
3) When
4) Where
150. You’ve never heard this song_________?
1) isn't it
2) haven't you
3) have you
4) is it
151. Jam _____from fruit.
1) makes
2) made
3) is made
4) is making
152. It’s time _______________.
1) that we have a break
2) to have a break
3) we will have a break
4) having a break
153. I expect we _______there in half an hour.
1) are being
2) will be
3) are
4) will have been
154. It was_________ place I had ever seen.
1) more beautiful
2) most beautiful
3) the most beautiful
4) the beautiful
155. My father gave up _______three weeks ago.
1) to smoke
2) smoke
3) smoking
4) smokes
156. “_______IPod is this?” “”It’s Mark’s”.
1) Who
2) Whose
3) Who’s
4) Which
157. Peter is a bad driver. He drives _________.
1) careless
2) carefu1
3) carefully
4) carelessly
158. Dolphins are so intelligent _______they can communicate with people.
1) that
2) than
3) as
4) because
159. They are _______asleep.
1) yet
2) just
3) still
4) else
160. Don’t you know him? He always _______lies.
1) tell
2) say
3) says
4) tells
161. He phoned to say he _______his bag on the plane.
1) forgot
2) has left
3) had left
4) has forgotten
162.I have never seen such _______men.
1) higher
2) high
3) tall
4) the tallest
163. My brother _________Ann Graves since childhood.
1) is loving
2) was loving
3) has been loving
4) has loved
164. He _______the farm since 1947.
1) has owned
2) have been owing
3) own
4) Owned
165. The man is old and we can’t _______well.
1) heard
2) hear
3) to hear
4) listen to
166. They arrived _______the airport on time.
1) by
2) in
3) to
4) At
167. A _______wind is blowing.
1) stronger
2) strong
3) strongest
4) small
168. The plane landed safely _______the two mountains.
1) among
2) on
3) between
4) in
169. The information is top secret, naturally, everybody is interested in _______.
1) them
2) they
3) it
4) their
170. I ______at the university for over eight years now.
1) have been working
2) am working
3) worked
4) was working
171. _______I went or flew with my parents I always took my favorite books with me.
1) Weather
2) Whatever
3) Whether
4) Wherever
172. The books _______for me or _______as presents.
1) often bought/just gave
2) was often bought/was just given
3) were often bought/were just given
4) often bought/gave just
173. My brother _________Ann Graves since childhood.
1) is loving
2) was loving
3) has been loving
4) has loved
174. Didn’t you see the show _______Sunday?
1) at
2) on
3) in
4) for
175. He has been unemployed _______he left the college.
1) for
2) before
3) since
4) during
176. _______there any news in your parents’ letter?
1) are
2) were
3) have
4) is
177. Take your umbrella, it is _______.
1) windy
2) frosty
36
3) foggy
4) rainy
178. Will you go _______working after the baby’s born?
1) after
2) on
3) in
4) about
179. It is _______magical tourist destination full of green lakes and beautiful snow-capped mountains.
1) ----
2) the
3) a
4) an
180. He turned _______the light and looked around the room.
1) off
2) up
3) on
4) down
181. We must be home by ten o’clock _______the latest.
1) in
2) on
3) at
4) by
182. Shall I make the final choice right now? – No, you _______.
1) mustn't
2) can’t
3) needn’t
4) couldn’t
183. If food in the Chinese restaurant is not bad and in the Japanese restaurant it is extremely delicious that means that the first one is _______than the second.
1) the worst
2) better
3) worse
4) the best
184. The manager _______us that the recorder would be repaired properly.
1) ensures
2) insures
3) assures
4) reassures
185. I _______that they'll want to see my passport.
1) wait
2) expect
3) accept
4) except
186. Tom Sawyer _________by Mark Twain. .
1) has written
2) was wrote
3) was written
4) is being written
187. As far as I know he speaks neither Spanish ________Italian.
1) or
2) either
3) not
4) nor
188. Have you seen Mary’s boyfriend__________?
1) yet
2) still
3) just
4) else
189. I wonder what our children________________ when we come back.
1) do
2) will do
3) are doing
4) will be doing
190 . I was very much surprised when Ann said that she__________.
1) Can’t to swim
2) Can’t swim
3) couldn’t swim
4) wasn’t able swim
191 . I want ___________me.
1) you to help
2) that you help
3) that you’ll help
4) you helping
192. He has never been to_______ foreign countries.
1) some
2) any
3) no
4)anywhere
193. Some animals cannot adapt to living in a(n) _______environment.
1) designed
2) manufactured
3) artificial
4) false
194. Stress can often _______a small problem into crisis.
1) push
2) move
3) bring
4) turn
195. The film was good , _______it was also very frightening .
1) despite
2) but
3) in spite
4) even though
196. I am younger than you, _______ _______?
1) am I?
2) am not I?
3) aren't I?
4) are I?
197. Danny suggested _______ to Spain for a week.
1) go
2) going
3) to go
4) to going
198. She means _______ a new car soon.
1) buying
2) buy
3) to buy
4) having bought
199. _______Mississippi is one of the longest rivers in the world.
1) a
2) the
3) an
4) ---
200. Tom said he would come back _______I finished.
1)before
2) while
3) until
4) till
201.We can’t agree _______you on the problem.
1) to
2) with
3) without
4) on
202. By 8 o’clock I _____at this article for 2 hours.
1) will have been working
2) will work
3) will be working
4) was working
203. I wish they _______more often.
1) had visited
2) visited
3) would visit
4) have visited
204. My boss expects me _______this work before six o'clock.
1) finish
2) to finish
3) finishing
4) to finishing
205. Charles Dickens is still _______ popular today as when his first work appeared, over 150 years ago.
1) as
2) so
3) such
4) much
206. Work takes _______most of my time these days.
1) on
2) up
3) over
4) in
40
207. "What did the doctor tell you?" "He _______me to go on a diet."
1) suggested
2) advised
3) explained
4) offered
208. I have made up my ____________to become a teacher.
1) brains
2) mind
3) head
4) decision
209. Everyone enjoyed the party, _______ _______?
1) didn't he?
2) didn't they?
3) didn't it?
4) didn't everyone?
210. If only I _______some of this work yesterday.
1) would do
2) would have done
3) had done
4) did
211. You’ve never heard this song_________?
1) isn't it
2) haven't you
3) have you
4) is it
212. She doesn't want to drive her father's car. She's afraid _______it.
1) of crashing
2) to crash
3) to crashing
4) crashing
213. They sell _______lovely things in that shop.
1) so
2) such a
3) such an
4) such
215. I can’t forgive her _______ruining my favorite dress.
1) about
2) of
3) for
4) at
216. Frank has taken _______jogging to keep fit.
1) over
2) down
3) through
4) up
217. Vera is in hospital. I’m going to visit _______tomorrow.
1) hers
2) she
3) her
4) it
218. “Which shoes do you like?” “The black ______”.
1) one
2) ones
3) those
4) these
219. When we arrived in Sochi, it was very hot and the sun_________ .
1) was shining
2) shone
3) shined
4) shining
220. My father’s birthday is on a Friday _______year.
1) this
2) that
3) those
4) the
221. He said that he _______to England yet.
1) hadn’t been
2) didn’t be
3) wasn’t
4) wasn’t been
222. By 2008, Michael _______five countries in Europe.
1) had already been visiting
2) was already visiting
3) already visited
4) had already visited
223. Jane was gardening ______Robert was painting the kitchen.
1) when
2) as soon as
3) after
4) while
224. I don’t think you should select pictures so carefully _______will do.
1) some
2) no
3) any
4) none
225. He wonders _______he could possibly get the job.
1) weather
2) whatever
3) whenever
4) whether
226. The clothes are absolutely wet. I should dry _______.
1) it
2) their
3) them
4) theirs
227. She is a student of the _______.
1) humanism
2) humanities
3) humanity
4) human
228. Mike turned _______half an hour late for the meeting.
1) out
2) up
3) down
4) back
229. We’d love _______at a new restaurant tonight.
1) eating
2) to eat
3) to be eating
4) having eaten
230. London is famous ______ its museums.
1) for
2) with
3) of
4) at
231. It’s the restaurant ________serves Chinese food.
1) who
2) what
3) that
4) is
232. Can you be quiet, please? I’m _______the phone.
1) at
2) with
3) on
4) in
233. Mary isn’t here. She has gone out _______lunch.
1) at
2) for
3) with
4) on
234. _______tired they look!
1) So
2) What
3) Which
4) How
235. It's too late to go to the cinema. The film will have started _______now.
1) by
2) for
3) from
4) up
236. They set _______on his voyage, full of excitement.
1) in
2) out
3) up
4) off
237. He is very experienced because he has been working here _______six years.
1) since
2) for
2) during
3) by
238. We congratulated Sam _______passing his exams.
1) on
2) for
3) about
4) with
239. Paula takes _______her mother. She is very sensitive.
1) after
2) down
3) over
4) from
240. It is not outdoor pollution, ______indoor pollution that must be given more attention as people spend most of their time indoors.
1) on the contrary
2) actually
3) but
4) also
241. Early European settlers found that the Indians popped corn _________ of heating them on stones.
1) with
2) through
3) by
4) by means
242. __________ Adolf Meyer, the Swiss-American psychiatrist, who coined the term "mental hygiene."
1) It seems
2) It is
3) It is believed
4) It is said that
243. __________ we manage the environment better, there will not be adequate supplies of natural resources for future generations.
1) As long as
2) Not until
3) Till such time
4) Unless
244. One respect in which Disneyland __________ other amusement parks is in referring to its paying customers as guests.
1) is different
2) different from
3) differs from
4) more different
245. It is important that all luggage __________ for identification before being loaded into the aircraft.
1) to be labelled
2) must be labelled
3) should be labelled
4) be labelled
246. Metallic paints are used to paint bridges,________
1) isn't it?
2) isn't that so?
3) no?
4) aren’t they?
247. The _______purpose of the jury system is to allow people to participate in the judicial process, not to inconvenience citizens.
1) most
2) least
3) very
4) much
248. The average elevation of the Himalayas is twenty thousand feet, and Mount Everest ______________ to more than twenty-nine thousand feet at its apex.
1) raises
2) rises
3) roses
4) arises
249. I don't want to read ... books. I hate reading. 1) some 2) any 3) no 4) none
250. Does ... mind if I smoke? 1) anybody 2) somebody 3) nobody 4) any
251. I am hungry. Let's eat ... . 1) some 2) any 3) anything 4) something
252. The accident looked serious but fortunately ... was injured. 1) anybody 2) anything 3) nobody 4) everything
253. I don't mind where you sit. You can sit ... you want. 1) anywhere 2) anything 3) somewhere 4) nowhere 254. Translate this sentence: Возможно кто-нибудь видел аварию. 1) Perhaps someone sees the accident. 2) Perhaps anyone saw the accident. 3) Perhaps nobody sees the accident. 4) Perhaps someone saw the accident.
255. I haven't read ... of these books but Jim has read ... of them. 1) any / some 2) no / some 3) none / any 4) some / any
256. If ... rings the doorbell, don't let ... in. 1) someone/ them 2) someone/ him 3) anyone/ they 4) anyone/ them
257. ... was very kind to me. They did ... they could to help me. 1) anybody / anything 2) everybody / everything 3) anybody / everything 4) everybody / nothing
258. … were you doing last Monday at 6 o’clock? 1) what 2) why 3) when 4) who
259. … was my dog in the evening? W… is he so muddy (грязный)? 1) when/what
2) where/why 3) whom/when 4) who/where
260. … do you go for a trip? – Twice a year. 1) how much 2) how long 3) how often 4) how
261. … mansion is it? – It’s mine. 1) who 2) whom 3) how 4) whose
262. W… of you should I reprimand (делать выговор)? W… is to blame? 1) what/whose 2) which/who 3) what/whose 4) when/who
263. For … are you going to purchase it? – For my little son. 1) whose 2) whom 3) which 4) what
264. At … do you aim? – I aim at money and power. 1) why 2) which 3) what 4) who
265. How … do you earn? W… is your salary? 1) many/which 2) much/what 3) much/why 4) many/whose
266. W… doctor do you like most of all? – Dr. Christina or Dr. Juliet? 1) which 2) when 3) why 4) whom
267. В каком предложении необходимо вставить определенный артикль? 1) What is _ weather like today? 2) We have _ large family. 3) What _ good day! 4) My aunt is _ teacher.
268. В каком предложении необходимо вставить неопределенный артикль? 1) There are two _ cups on the table. 2) My _ sister has blue eyes. 3) I live in _ large city. 4) It is _ seventh of December.
269. В каком случае артикль не употребляется? 1) _ sun is shining in the sky. 2) I saw _ beautiful landscapes in that part of the country. 3) Give me _ flower, please. 4) Where is _ picture?
270. В каком случае артикль употребляется? 1) Is your father at _ home? 2) She works at _ school. 3) You have some _ pencils. 4) There is a large fountain in _ middle of the city.
271. I have (1) pen, but I have no (2) pencils. 1) 1) the; 2) a 2) 1) a; 2) a 3) 1) ...; 2) a 4) 1) a; 2) ...
272. There is (1) small chair in (2) corner of our room. 1) 1) the; 2) a 2) 1) the; 2) ... 3) 1) a; 2) the 4) 1) ...; 2) the
273. What (1) colour is his (2) shirt? 1) 1) a; 2) the 2) 1) ...; 2) ... 3) 1) the; 2) a 4) 1) a; 2) ...
274. Выберите вариант ответа, в котором употребляются только определенные артикли.
1) Let's go to _ shop. I want to buy _ bread and _ milk. 2) _ sun is shining brightly in _ sky. What _ good weather! 3) My brother is _ best pupil in his class. Now he is reading something in _ corner of _ room. 4) John had _ very interesting conversation with his _ old friend. They talked almost all _ night.
275. Выберите вариант ответа, в котором употребляются только неопределенные артикли. 1) The Nile is _ longest river in the world. The Amazon is _ not so long, but it is very _ deep. 2) She had _ bad day today. There were _ problems at _ work. 3) _ bedroom is _ large room with two windows. Windows are _ very large. 4) Yesterday I received _ letter from my friend. He said he lived in _ big house.
276. Thank you for_____ me. 1) helping 2) help 3) to help 4) helped
277. I’m afraid of _____ mistakes. 1) to make 2) made 3) make 4) making
278. It is important _____. 1) to win 2) winning 3) win 4) won
279. A: This problem is too difficult. I can’t solve it. B: Is it really too difficult for you _____? 1) solving 2) solve 3) to solve 4) solved
280. Have you got anything _____? 1) reading 2) to read 3) read 4) reads
281. If I ___ my entrance exams I ___ the happiest man in the world. 1) shall pass / would be 2) passed / am 3) passed / would have been 4) will pass / be 5) pass / shall be
282. What ___ you ___ if the train ___ in time? 1) will be / doing / come 2) did / will not come 3) do / didn’t / come 4) have / done / came 5) will / do / doesn’t come
283. If you ___ tickets we ___ Paris. 1) will buy / shall visit 2) bought / visit 3) buys / visited 4) buy / shall visit
284. If you are free, watch the film they ___ on TV. 1) shows 2) showed 3) are showing 4) had showed
285. If my friend ___ to our town next year I ___ him the sights of the city. 1) shall come / show 2) comes / shall show 3) has come / is showing 4) is coming / will show
286. If he ___ in Tokyo he ___ us. 1) was / will visit 2) were / would visit 3) will be / will visit 4) is / would visit
287. What would you do if a millionaire ___ you a lot of money. 1) gave 2) give 3) will give 4) gives
288. If I ___ the car myself I ___ you use it. 1) needed / would let 2) don’t need / would let 3) didn’t need / wouldn’t let 4) didn’t need / would let
289. If I ___ you I ___ never her. 1) am / shall forgive 2) was / don’t forgive 3) were / would forgive 4) had been / forgave
290. Many people would be out of work if that factory ___ down. 1) had been closed 2) were closed 3) was closing 4) is closed
291. I phoned yesterday, but I ____ get an answer. Where were you? 1) can 2) could 3) managed to 4) couldn’t
292. The neighbors were having a row, and I _____ hear every word they said. 1) can 2) could 3) managed to 4) couldn’t
293. Speak up! I _____ hear you! 1) can 2) could 3) can’t 4) couldn’t
294. I’d love _____ help you, but I can’t. I’m sorry. 1) can 2) could 3) managed to 4) to be able to
295. Women _____ vote in England until 1922. 1) can 2) are able to
3) managed to 4) couldn’t
296. I’m learning Spanish because I want _____ speak when I’m in Mexico. 1) can 2) could 3) will be able to 4) to be able to
297. The doctor says I _____ walk again in two weeks’ time. 1) can 2) could 3) will be able to 4) to be able to
298. You _____ be hungry. You’ve just had dinner. 1) aren’t 2) can’t 3) may 4) must
299. You _____ be hungry. You had no lunch. 1) can’t 2) shouldn’t 3) must 4) couldn’t
300. A: Is this a 24 bus coming? B: It__ be. I can’t see the number yet. 1) might 2) can’t 3) may not 4) must

Задание: прочитать текст на юридическую тематику и передать основную мысль на английском языке в пяти предложениях
Read and translate the text. Give the main idea of the text in five sentences.
CARD 1
Studying Law in the UK
In the UK, a legal education usually begins with the completion of a bachelor degree in law, known as an LLB, which usually takes three years. However, many students graduate in a non-law subject and then undertake a one year conversion course known as a postgraduate Diploma in Law or GDL. One interesting aspect of legal profession and appropriate legal education in the UK is that there are two separate legal careers of solicitors andbarristers in England and Wales. 2. A person wishing to become a solicitor must complete three stages: the first stage involves gaining a law degree; the second stage requires passing a one-year full-time (or two years part-time) Legal Practice Course (LPC); and the final stage entails working for two years as a trainee solicitor with a firm of solicitors or in the legal department of a local authority or large company. At this stage, a trainee solicitor is paid a salary. 3. Intending barristers also need a qualifying law degree in order to apply to join one of the Inns of Court to study for the Bar Professional Training Course. It's also mandatory for students to keep terms, which meansdining at their Inn a fixed number of times, before they can be called to the Bar, that is, qualify as a barrister. 6. Then the new barrister faces intense competition to obtain a funded pupillage in chambers for twelve months in order to get practical training, when pupils at first shadow an experienced barrister byobserving professional activities, and then, with their supervisor's permission, can undertake to supply legal services and exercise rights of audience. 7. To gain a Full Qualification Certificate pupils must learn the rules of conduct and etiquette at the Bar, learn to prepare and present a case competently, learn to draft pleadings and opinions, have advocacy training. If successful at the end of the twelve months, the qualified barrister applies for a tenancy in chambers. 8. The profession of barrister in England and Wales is a separate profession from that of solicitor. It is however possible to hold the qualification of both barrister and solicitor at the same time. 9. The practical difference between the two professions is twofold: – Barristers have a more specialized knowledge of case-law and precedent. It is relatively common for a barrister to only receive a "brief" from an instructing solicitor to represent a client at trial a day or two before the hearing. – A barrister has rights of audience in the higher courts. In this regard, the profession of barrister corresponds to that part of the role of legal professionals found in the civil law countries relating to appearing in trials or pleading cases before the courts.
CARD 2 History of law The history of law or legal history is the history of our race, and the personification of its experience. Law developed before history was even recorded and rules were recognized to reconcile discussions before written laws or courts ever existed. This dates back to the age of the ancient Egyptians and Babylonians. Different to idea, law was discovered and not invented. It was systematically discovered established on historical experiences and historical events of generations for years and centuries. In Babylonia, the Mesopotamia region, ethnic customs were transformed into social laws thousands of years ago. Laws also existed in ancient Greece. Our information of ancient Greek laws comes from several Homeric writings. As well, the Roman law was the legal system not only in ancient Rome, but was applied all over Europe until the eighteenth century. A lot of European modern laws are still influenced by Roman law. English and North American common and civil laws also be obliged some debt to Roman ancient law. Customary law dictated human actions, for a long time, by reflecting the conduct of people towards one another. Below customary law, rules spontaneously emerged and developed to establish an argument between people. These spontaneously born rules are voluntarily pursued by the parties implicated in the dispute and are more likely to be gratifying to the parties than a rule imposed on them by an authoritative body. The customary law was the procedure that guides to the discovery of natural law. Natural law is the irrefutable standard to which laws must be stable in order to be legitimate. In other words, we can say that natural law is the body of rules of right conduct and justice common to all people. By comparison, common law is a system by which a law comes to pass based on some legal antecedent. Historically, Anglo-Saxon customary law implicated a group of people known as Bohr. The group compromised a guarantee for each of its members. Each individual would protect his/her property claims by accepting the responsibility to respect the property rights of others. The group would then pay the penalties for any member found to be in infringement of the agreement. Since finances were at stake, the group had an inducing reason to police its members and often invalidate the membership of those found in infringement of the rules. Moreover, it was also common to socially exile those who violate the rules. If the outcast member pays compensation, then they may be permitted to become members of the group again. These rules that evolved spontaneously established disputes between people in a civilized method thus eliminating violent measures. In some cases, the process implicated appeals and mutual disputes. This process and these two way arguments are analogous to financial organizations (in our time) such as insurance companies.
CARD 3 Сlassification of law There are many ways to subdivide the law. One way is to distinguish between substantive law and procedural law. Substantive law sets out the rights and duties governing people as they act in society. Duties tend to take the form of a command: "Do this!" or "Don't do that". An example is the Civil Rights Act of 1964, as amended. In it Congress told employers that they must not discriminate among people in hiring and employment on the basis of race, colour, religion, sex or national origin. Substantive law also establishes rights and privileges. An example is the freedom of speech granted by the U.S. Constitution. Another is the right you have to defend yourself if physically attacked – the so-called right of self-defence. Procedural law establishes the rules under which the substantive rules of law are enforced. Rules as to what cases a court can decide, how a trial is conducted, and how a judgement by a court is to be enforced are all parts of procedural law. Another important distinction is between criminal and civil law. Criminal law defines breaches of duty to society at large. It is the society, through government employees called public prosecutors or district attorneys, that brings court action against violators. If you are found guilty of a crime, such as theft, you will be punished by imprisonment or a fine. When a fine is paid, the money goes to the state, not to the victim of the crime. Duties owed by one person (including corporations) to another are established by civil law. For example, we have a duty to carry out our contractual promises. Tort law defines a host of duties people owe to each other. One of the most common is a duty to exercise reasonable care with regard to others. Failure to do so is the tort of negligence. Suit for the breach of a civil duty must be brought by the person wronged. Generally, the court does not seek to punish the wrong but rather to make the wronged party whole through a money award called damages. For example, if someone carelessly runs a car into yours, that person has committed the civil wrong (tort) of negligence. If you have suffered a broken leg, you will be able to recover damages from the driver (or his or her insurance company). The damages will be an amount of money sufficient to repair your auto, to pay your medical bills, to pay for wages you have lost, and to give you something for any permanent disability, such as a limp. Damages for "pain and suffering" are also usually awarded. Although generally the civil law does not aim to punish, there is an exception. If the behaviour of someone who commits a tort is outrageous, that person can be made to pay punitive damages (also called exemplary damages). Unlike a fine paid in a criminal case, punitive damages go to the injured party.
Sometimes, the same behaviour can violate both the civil law and the criminal law. For instance, a party whose careless driving causes the death of another may face both a criminal prosecution by the state and a civil suit for damages by the survivors of the deceased party. If both suits are successful the person would pay back society for the harm done through a fine or a sentence, and compensate the survivors through the payment of money damages.
CARD 4
Role of Police Force
The word POLICE means, generally, the arrangements made in all civilized countries to ensure that the inhabitants keep the peace and obey the law. The word also denotes the force of peace officers (or police) employed for this purpose.
The police have many functions in the legal process. Though they are mainly concerned with criminal law, they may also be used to enforce judgements made in civil courts. As well as gathering information for offences to be prosecuted in the courts, the police have wide powers to arrest, search and question people suspected of crimes and to control the actions of members of the public during public demonstrations and assemblies. In some countries, the police have judicial functions; for example, they may make a decision as to guilt in a driving offence and impose a fine, without the involvement of a court. In Britain, when someone is found in possession of marijuana, the police may confiscate it and issue a formal warning rather than refer the matter to a court.
The mere presence of the police is a factor in deterring people from committing offence.
A just legal system needs an independent, honest police force. In countries where the public trusts the police force, they are more likely to report crimes, and it seems that they are also more likely to be law-abiding. Because of their wide powers it would not be difficult for corrupt police forces to falsify evidence against a suspect, to mistreat someone they have arrested, or to accept bribes in return for overlooking offences. There have been numerous cases of police violence against foreign suspects, many of who are not told of their rights in a language which they can understand. In the Birmingham Six case, British police officers obtained confessions from men suspected of bombing a pub by beating them up. In the United States, illegally obtained evidence is not valid in court, but in Britain the court decides whether it is fair to accept such evidence on a case-by-case basis. A confession obtained by force would not be allowed, but one obtained by trickery might.
CARD 5
Сonstitutional law: types and functions of constitutions
Constitutions are the framework for government and may limit or define the authority and procedure of political bodies to execute new laws and regulations. Not all nation states have codified constitutions though all law-governed states have law of land consisting of various imperative and consensual rules. They may include common law, conventions, statutory law and international rules.
Codified constitutions are considered rulemaking fundamentals, or rules about making rules to exercise power. They govern the relationships among the judiciary, the legislature and the executive bodies. One of the key tasks of constitutions within this context is to indicate hierarchies of power. For example, in a unitary state the constitution will vest ultimate authority in the central administration and legislature, and judiciary, though there is often a delegation of authority to local or municipal bodies. When a constitution establishes a federal state it will identify several levels government coexisting with exclusive or shared areas of jurisdiction over lawmaking, application and enforcement.
Human rights or liberties for citizens form a crucial part of a country’s constitution and govern the rights of the individual against the state. Most jurisdictions, like the United States, Ukraine and France, have a single codified constitution. A recent example is the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union, which was intended to be included in the Treaty establishing a Constitution of Europe.
Some countries, like the United Kingdom, have no entrenched document setting out the fundamental rights – in this jurisdiction the constitution is composed of statute, case law and convention. Inspired by a famous philosopher John Locke, the fundamental constitutional principle is that the individual can do anything but that is forbidden by law, while state may do nothing but that is which authorized by law.
The function of codified constitution is also to describe the procedure by which parliaments may legislate. For instance, special majorities may be required to alter the constitution. In two-chamber legislatures there may be a process laid out for second or third readings of bills before a new law can be passed.
CARD 6 English Law English law can be divided into Statute Law, Common Law and Case Law. Statute Law consists of all laws passed by Parliament. The majority of laws are proposed and drafted by the government in power, any member of the House of Commons or House of I Lords can also propose a law. An exception to this is that only a member of the House of Commons may introduce a financial Bill. The laws that are drafted by the government, as the laws proposed by individual members of the House of Commons or House of Lords must be agreed to by Parliament before they become effective. That means that they must be passed by the elected House of Commons, approved (in most cases) by the House of! Lords, and confirmed by the Sovereign. Common Law consists of principles and rules of conduct based on the ancient customs of the country and recognized by the Courts as Law. Common Law is unwritten, and its principles can be learnt only by intensive study of past court decisions and ancient custom. The Common Law can, however, be changed or developed by statute. But more important perhaps than either the Statute Law or even the Common Law are decisions of the Courts. Just as the many ancient customs of the land make up the Common Law, the collected decisions of the Courts form English "Case Law". Once Parliament has passed a law, the courts must decide what the words of that law mean. The interpretation of the Courts remains till either a higher Court decides that this interpretation was wrong, or Parliament passes another law and changes it. So once a Court decided against the government on a question of what a law means - and the Courts may decide that a law as worded means something quite different from what the government intended - the government must accept the decision of the Court. They may, if the Houses agree, pass another law. But that takes a great deal of time and trouble.
CARD 7
EU Law The Law of the European Union is the unique legal system which operates alongside the laws of Member States of the European Union. The EU law has direct effect within the legal system of its Member States, and overrides national law in many areas, especially in terms of economic and social policy. The European Union is not a federal government, nor is it an intergovernmental organization. It constitutes a new legal order in international law for the mutual social and economic benefit of the Member States .It is sometimes classified as supernational law. The European Union law has evolved gradually over the last 56 years. When the Treaty of Paris was signed in 1951, it established the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC), and comprised just 6 Member States.
Five years later the European Economic Community (EC) was founded by the same six Member States, and then they signed EUROATOM (European Autonomic Energy Community Treaty). The original aim of the Community was economic integration: to create a common market, later defined as a Single Internal Market, in which there could be free trade area, where Member States’ frontiers) between themselves, and a customs union, in which all members agreed to impose on goods coming into the area from non-member states a common level of duty ( the Common Customs Tariff). Now there are around 500 million EU citizens in 27 Member States subject to the EU law, making it one of the most encompassing modern legal systems in the world. The sources of the EU law are: 1) the Treaties – primary legislation (the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union (Lisbon Treaty), the Treaty on the European Union Maastricht Treaty; 2) secondary legislation enacted by the European Union (such as regulations and directives); 3) general principles, including fundamental human rights, and citizenship of the EU for every national of a Member State; 4) decisions of the European Court. The EU Treaties are directly applicable in every Member State. Accession to the Community limits the power of national governments and affects national sovereignty – the power to govern. The European Union law has supremacy over, that is, overrides national law. There are 5 types of legal acts the European Union uses: · treaties; · regulations; · directives; · decisions of the European Court; · recommendations and opinions.
CARD 8
Human Rights
The concept of human rights has existed under several names in European thought for many centuries, at least since the time of King John of England. After the king violated a number of ancient laws and customs by which England had been governed, his subjects forced him to sign the Magna Carta, which enumerated a number of what later came to be thought of as human rights. Among them were the right of the church to be free from governmental interference, the rights of all free citizens to own and inherit property and be free from excessive taxes. Magna Carta established principles of due process and equality before the law and it also contained provisions forbidding bribery and official misconduct. The political and religious traditions in other parts of the world also proclaimed what have come to be called human rights, calling on rulers to rule justly and compassionately, and delineating limits on their power over the lives, property, and activities of their citizens. In the United States, a bloody war over slavery came close to destroying a country founded only eighty years earlier on the premise that, "all men are created equal."
The women's rights movement succeeded in gaining for many women the right to vote. National liberation movements in many countries succeeded in driving out colonial powers. The modern human rights movement didn't invent any new principles. It was different from what preceded it primarily in its explicit rejection of political ideology and partisanship, and its demand that governments everywhere, regardless of ideology, adhere to certain basic principles of human rights in their treatment of their citizens. This appealed to a large group of people, many of whom were politically inactive, not interested in joining a political movement, not ideologically motivated. They were simply outraged that any government dared abuse, imprison, torture, and often kill human beings whose only crime was in believing differently from their government and saying so in public. They took to writing letters to governments and publicising the plights of these people in hopes of persuading or embarrassing abusive governments into better behaviour.
CARD 9 International human rights law The international human rights movement was strengthened when the United Nations General Assembly adopted of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) on 10 December 1948. Drafted as 'a common standard of achievement for all peoples and nations' ,the Declaration for the first time in human history spell out basic civil, political, economic, social and cultural rights that all human beings should enjoy. It has over time been widely accepted as the fundamental norms of human rights that everyone should respect and protect. The UDHR, together with the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and its two Optional Pro- tocols, and the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, form the so - called International Bill of Human Right. A series of international human rights treaties and other instruments adopted since 1945 have conferred legal form on inherent human rights and developed the body of international human rights. Other instruments have been adopted at the regional level reflecting the particular human rights concerns of the region and providing for specific mechanisms of protection. Most States have also adopted constitutions and other laws which formally protect basic human rights. While international treaties and customary law form the backbone of international human rights law other instruments such as declarations, guidelines and principles adopted at the international level contribute to its understanding, implementation and development. Respect for human rights requires the establishment of the rule of law at the national and international levels. International human rights law lays down obligations which States are bound to respect. By becoming parties to international treaties, States assume obligations and duties under international law to respect, to protect and to fulfil human rights. The obligation to respect means that States must refrain from interfering with or curtailing the enjoyment of human right. The obligation to protect requires States to protect individuals and groups against human rights abuses. The obligation to fulfil means that States must take positive action to facilitate the enjoyment of basic human. Through ratification of international human rights treaties, Governments undertake to put into place domestic measures and legislation compatible with their treaty obligations and duties. Where domestic legal proceedings fail to address human rights abuses, mechanisms and procedures for individual complaints or communications are available at the regional and international levels to help ensure that international human rights standards are indeed respected, implemented, and enforced at the local level.
CARD 10 Human Rights - What document guarantees international human rights?
- The Universal Declaration of Human Rights guarantees international human rights. The United Nations General Assembly passed this document in 1948.
- What international organizations are responsible for protecting human rights? - International concern for human rights has been evident outside of the United Nations. The Conference on Security and Co-operation in Europe, which met in Helsinki in 1973-75, produced the Helsinki Final Act. The European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms, which first met in 1950, produced the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and the European Social Charter; the Ninth Pan-American Conference of 1948 adopted the American Declaration on the Rights and Duties of Man; and the Organization of African Unity in 1981 adopted the African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights. There are also a number of private groups involved in human-rights advocacy. One of the best-known international human rights agencies is Amnesty International (founded in 1961). This organization is responsible for broad casting violations of human rights, especially freedoms of speech and religion and the right of political dissent.
- When was the notion of human right worked out?
- Human rights belong to an individual as a consequence of being human. They refer to a wide range of values that are universal for all human beings. The origins of the concept of human rights are traced to the Greco-Roman natural-law doctrines of stoicism. According to the doctrines a universal force penetrates all creation and that human conduct should therefore be judged ac cording to the law of nature, and in the "law of nations", in which certain universal rights were extended beyond the rights of Roman citizenship. From the Renaissance until the 17th century the beliefs and practices of society so changed that the idea of human (or natural) rights took hold as a general social need and reality. The modernist conception of natural law (natural rights) was elaborated in the 17th and 18th centuries. The struggle against political absolutism in the late 18th and the 19th centuries further advanced the concept of human rights. In the 20th century the notion of human rights achieved universal acceptance. - What are the basic human rights? - The right to life and liberty are the basic human rights. They are proclaimed in the Covenant on Civil and Political rights and its optional protocol. One of the most vital rights granted in this Covenant is the right of people to self-determination. This document guarantees such rights as personal security, equality before the law, fair trial, freedom of religion, freedom of opinion and expression, peaceful assembly, right to marry, participation in public affairs and elections, and minority rights. Propaganda of war is prohibited. The right to security and privacy of person is very important too. The document insures fundamental freedoms for all without distinction as to race, sex, language, or religion.
CARD 11
Enforcing the Law
Governments have many ways of making sure that citizens obey the law. They make the public aware of what the law is and try to encourage social support for law and order. They use police forces to investigate crimes and catch criminals. They authorize courts to complete the investigation of criminal and civil offences and to pass sentences to punish the guilty and deter others. And they make efforts to re-educate and reform people who have broken the law. Which of these is most effective in enforcing the law?
The laws of all countries are to be found in written records — the legal codes of countries with continental systems, the statutes and case judgements of common law countries, warnings on official forms, and notices in public buildings. Many people do not know where to find these records and do not find it easy to read them. But ignorance of the law is almost never a defence for breaking it. Governments usually expect citizens to be aware of the laws which affect their lives. Sometimes this seems very harsh, for example, when the law is very technical. Shopkeepers in England have been prosecuted for selling books on Sunday, although they were allowed to sell magazines. However, there are many laws, such as those prohibiting theft, assault and dangerous driving, which simply reflect social and moral attitudes to everyday behavior. In such cases a person knows he is breaking the law, even if he doesn’t know exactly which law it is.
CARD 12
Law Enforcement in the USA A criminal case begins when a person goes to court and files a complaint that another person has committed an offence. This is followed by issuing either an arrest, warrant or a summons. A criminal case is started when an indictment is returned by a grand jury before, anything else happens in the case. Indictments most often are felony accusations against persons who have been arrested and referred to the grand jury. After an accused is indicted, he is brought into court and is told about the nature of the charge against him and asked to plead. He can plead guilty, which is the admission that he committed the crime and can be sentenced without a trial. He can plead not guilty and be tried. As a general rule the parties to civil suits and defendants in criminal cases are entitled to trial by jury of 12 jurors. But a jury is not provied unless it is demanded in writing in advance of the trial; in this case a civil or a criminal case is trial to the judge alone, greater criminal cases are tried to a three-judge panel. In trial by the jury the attorneys for each party make their opening statements. The prosecution presents its evidence based on the criminal investigation of the case. The attorney for the defence pleads the case of the accused, examines his witnesses and cross-examines the witnesses for the prosecution. Both, the prosecution and the defence, try to convince the jury. When all the evidence is in, the attorneys make their closing arguments to the jury with the prosecutor going first. Both attorneys try to show the evidence in the most favourable light for their sides. But if one of them uses improper material in his final argument the opponent may object, the objection may be ruled out by the judge who will instruct the jury to disregard what. was said or may be sustained. After this the judge proceeds to instruct the jury on its duty and the jury retires to the jury room to consider the verdict. In civil cases at least three-fourths of the jurors must agree on the verdict. In a criminal case there must not be any reasonable doubt as to the guilt of the accused, the verdict must be unanimous. The next stage is for the judge to decide, in case of a verdict of guilty, what sentence to impose on the convict.
CARD 13
Law Enforcement of Today
Usefulness and necessity of law reveal themselves solely in the course of implementation of law, its embodiment. Implementation of law provisions ispractical execution of instructions included in those provisions, when a rule, displayed in a law provision in general form, is embodied in people’s deeds. A special form of law realization is its enforcement. A peculiarity of the givenform is that it is executed by the competent bodies and is aimed at a restrictednumber of persons or one person. An act of law enforcement is an individualact of an authorized body of power that is based on norms and determinesparticular rights, duties or liability. Non-observance of such acts is punished. Major requirements to such acts are as following: •Strict compliance with legal provisions • An act must be issued within the limits of powers of the law enforcement bodyor an official •An act must be substantiated • An act must have all the; required characteristics of an official document. Law enforcement acts are not sources of law since they do not contain anygeneral rules of conduct but ensure the application of certain law provisionswith respect to a particular case or person. Unlike normative legal acts, acts oflaw enforcement are supposed to be applied once only. The law enforcement is required in different cases, when implementation of thelaw is impossible without the interference of the state, its bodies or officials,such as: • Relations in the sphere of the state management (e.g. appointment of aFederal Minister) • Relations in the area of distribution of social benefits (e.g. pensions or statewelfare payments) • Relations arising in solving law disputes (e.g. the court decision) • Relations arising under judicial prosecuting, imposing and executing thepunishment (e.g. the
ruling of the criminal investigator to initiate a criminal case).
CARD 14
Stages of Law Enforcement Law enforcement is executed in a strictly set procedure and in a defined order.
Main stages of law enforcement are as follows: •Ascertaining the actual circumstances of the case •Investigating and qualifying the actual circumstances (choosing the requiredlaw provision and inte
rpreting it) • Ruling on the case.
A law-enforcement process is also executed in case of a gap in a law. A gap in alaw is the absence of a necessary provision regulating public relations that are to be regulated by law.
In case a gap in a law is discovered, it is liquidated by the means of: •Adoption of a missing law provision by the competent bodies • Eliminating the gap in the law by the law-enforcer. Principal ways to eliminatethe gap in the law are: ● Application of analogy of law ● Application of analogy of legislation.
Application of Analogy of Law In this case a gap in a law is eliminated by application of a law provision, regulating similar relations (such law provision serves as a law basis for thecourt decision). Application of Analogy of Legislation In the absence of a law provision regulating similar relations, the law-enforcer eliminates a gap in a law in accordance with general principles and the meaningof the legislation. Analogy of law and analogy of legislation take place in the Russian civil law-enforcement practice, but are prohibited in the administrative and criminal laws.
CARD 15 Law Enforcement Jobs Today, there is a number of law enforcement jobs found at many different levels. A local police force serves by protecting the rights of citizens living within a specified jurisdiction. Police are empowered to apprehend and arrest people who are suspected of committing acts deemed to be criminal in nature. In many cultures, the administration of the police department works with other law professionals to make sure the suspect is held in custody or at least remains in the general area until he or she can stand trial for the suspected criminal activity. State and federal law enforcement professionals are also empowered to apprehend suspects where there is sufficient evidence of wrongdoing. Most nations have one or more enforcement agencies that have broad authority to function anywhere within the borders of the nation and any territories the country may possess. Some of the best known national agencies of this type include the FBI in the United States, and Scotland Yard in the United Kingdom. Law enforcement also includes other professionals who manage some aspect of the containment, punishment, and possible rehabilitation of criminals. Employees of state and federal penal systems are considered to be members of the law enforcement community. In like manner, private detectives are also often viewed as being associated with legal enforcement. Probation officers, district attorneys, and court judges are also enforcement professionals who help to protect the rights of all citizens and seek to minimize the incidence of crime within society.
CARD 16
Role of the Police Force
Legal systems usually have codes of conduct for the police, limiting the time and the methods which they can use to question suspects and guaranteeing the suspects access to independent lawyers. In Britain, however, the Police and Criminal Evidence Act, and especially the Prevention of Terrorism Act, give the police some powers to delay access to lawyers. The Police Complaints Authority was set up in 1984 to supervise the investigation of allegations of police misconduct. No police officer or former police officer may be appointed to the authority. However, investigations themselves are carried out by police officers. Of course, private legal action can be taken against a police officer as against any other individual – for example, in the tort of false imprisonment. But many people feel it is difficult to gather evidence against the police.
In some countries, police officers are usually armed, whereas in others they only carry guns when engaged in certain kinds of work. Governments may also make use of the army to enforce the law, but this is only done on a regular basis when there is political dissatisfaction with the government, either from a large part of the civilian population, or from a well-armed minority (Northern Ireland). Since armies are trained for wartime conditions, their methods of law enforcement are unlikely to be completely impartial, although there are some countries where the army appears to enjoy more public confidence than the police (India).
As with the police, it is important that the public feels the judiciary is independent and unbiased. Americans feel that the best way of ensuring this is to have elected judges. Britons fear this might lead to politicalization of the judiciary and prefer to have judges appointed by the government on the recommendation of the Lord Chancellor.
Although courts have the highest legal authority, they rely on the power of the prison authorities to enforce their decisions. They can authorize the detention of an individual in order to gather evidence against him, compel him to obey a court-order or punish him for a crime.
CARD 17 Classification of Law “Law can be divided up in a number of ways. It can be divided into ‘statute law’ and ‘Common law ‘, and can also be divided into ‘public law’ and ‘private law’. Under this system, public law deals with relations between individuals and the state, and private law deals with relations between individuals (meaning individual people or organisations). Another way to think about the law and what it does is to look at what sort of behaviour or relationships it deals with” (for example, criminal law or Administrative law ). The process of classification is a helpful way of obtaining an overview or general view of law for the purposes of teaching or Learning , but it is a somewhat artificial exercise and does not produce an absolute and infallible categorisation of the law. Factual situations that arise in real life often do not fit neatly and exactly into only a single one of these categories of law. In fact, they are far more likely to involve two or more different topics of law. However, for the purposes of teaching and Learning , these classifications are useful in that they break up the whole mass of law into manageable portions, and they provide some framework and structure. International law is sometimes also subdivided into: – regional law, i.e. the law operating outside the country to regulate matters within a particular region of the world, e.g. South Pacific region, Asia/Pacific region, Western Europe; and – universal law, i.e. the law operating outside a country to regulate matters wherever they occur in the world. Domestic or municipal law is the law that operates within a country. Such law is national (applying throughout the whole country) or regional (applying within a particular section of the country such as a state, province, or district). At the most immediate level of administration, such regional law is often called local law, since it is law that operates only within a certain limited area or locality within a country, such as a subdistrict, shire, municipality, city, or town.
CARD 18 Administrative Law in Common Law Countries Generally speaking, most countries that follow the principles of common law have developed procedures for judicial review that limit the reviewability of decisions made by administrative law bodies. Often these procedures are coupled with legislation or other common law doctrines that establish standards for proper rulemaking. Administrative law may also apply to review of decisions of so-called semi-public bodies, such as non-profit corporations, disciplinary boards, and other decision-making bodies that affect the legal rights of members of a particular group or entity. While administrative decision-making bodies are often controlled by larger governmental units, their decisions could be reviewed by a court of general jurisdiction under some principle of judicial review based upon due process (United States) or fundamental justice (Canada). Judicial review of administrative decisions, it must be noted, is different from an administrative appeal. When sitting in review of a decision, the Court will only look at the method in which the decision was arrived at, whereas in an administrative appeal the correctness of the decision itself will be examined, usually by a higher body in the agency.This difference is vital in appreciating administrative law in common law countries. The scope of judicial review may be limited to certain questions of fairness, or whether the administrative action is ultra vires. In terms of ultra vires actions in the broad sense, a reviewing court may set aside an administrative decision if it is unreasonable (under Canadian law, following the rejection of the "Patently Unreasonable" standard by the Supreme Court in Dunsmuir v. New Brunswick), Wednesbury unreasonable (under British law), or arbitrary and capricious (under U.S. Administrative Procedure Act and New York State law). Administrative law, as laid down by the Supreme Court of India, has also recognized two more grounds of judicial review which were recognized but not applied by English Courts viz. legitimate expectation and proportionality. The powers to review administrative decisions are usually established by statute, but were originally developed from the royal prerogative writs of English law, such as the writ of mandamus and the writ of certiorari. In certain Common Law jurisdictions, such as India or Pakistan, the power to pass such writs is a Constitutionally guaranteed power. This power is seen as fundamental to the power of judicial review and an aspect of the independent judiciary.
CARD 19 Agrarian Law What are the social relations governing the agrarian law, which is the subject of his study? In the process of production and economic activity of agricultural producers have interlinked property, land, commercial, labor, organizational and administrative relations. They do not constitute an organic unity, but the specific activities in the agricultural sector necessitates their integration into one system. Thus, we can conclude that the agrarian law as a complex area to regulate agrarian relations of both traditional and special rules. The subject of agrarian law is a relationship based on private, state, municipal property and arising in the field of agriculture. Agrarian law as a specialized branch of law designed to regulate the relations established between actors in the agricultural sector. The provisions of the Agricultural Law regulated range and content of these rights and responsibilities. Thus, the nature of industrial and economic and socio-economic activities, feature social conditions of existence of agricultural producers is determined by the uniqueness of the subject of agrarian law as a field of law. Agrarian Law of Ukraine as a branch of law that is under formation and the formation, regulates a complex of related industrial and commercial relations, which consist in the production and processing of agricultural products. Agrarian law as a system of rules governing a variety of complex social relations, which consist in the process of agricultural production. This coherent system of legal rules, blocks and elements are placed in hierarchical order. Agrarian law as a systematic branch regulates a group of complex social relations and is thus a comprehensive integrated area of law. It is associated with economic, civil, administrative, labor, land and other areas of law. The term "agrarian law" covered interrelated but not identical concepts. Agrarian Law should rozhlyadyaty as a branch of law, the legal branch of science and academic discipline. Agrarian law as one of the branches of legal science - a system of scientific knowledge, legal ideas, theoretical views, concepts and knowledge about the laws of agrarian-legal regulation of social relations that are the subject of agrarian law. As a science agrarian law is a theoretical position about the subject, methods, sources, subjects and objects of agrarian law of agrarian legal on state regulation silskohohospodarskyh relations, organization, discipline and safety in agriculture and more. Agrarian law as an academic discipline is a system of scientific knowledge about the agrarian law - the branch of law and legislation designed to study the relevant institutions, particularly - legal.
CARD 20
Civil Law The principle of civil law is to provide all citizens with an accessible and written collection of the laws which apply to them and which judges must follow. It is the most widespread system of law in the world, in force in various forms in about 150 countries,and draws heavily from arguably the most intricate legal system we know of from before the modern era. Colonial expansion spread the civil law which has been received in much of Latin America and parts of Asia and Africa. Where codes exist, the primary source of law is the law code, which is a systematic collection of interrelated articles, arranged by subject matter in some pre-specified order,and that explain the principles of law, rights and entitlements, and how basic legal mechanisms work. Law codes are usually created by a legislature's enactment of a new statute that embodies all the old statutes relating to the subject and including changes necessitated by court decisions. In some cases, the change results in a new statutory concept. Other major legal systems in the world include common law, Halakha, canon law, and Islamic law. Civilian countries can be divided into: • those where civil law in some form is still living law but there has been no attempt to create a civil code: Andorra, Malta, and San Marino • those with uncodified mixed systems in which civil law is an academic source of authority but common law is also influential: Scotland and Roman-Dutch law countries (South Africa, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Sri Lanka and Guyana) • those with codified mixed systems in which civil law is the background law but has had its public law heavily influenced by common law: Louisiana, Quebec, Puerto Rico, Philippines • those with comprehensive codes that exceed a single civil code, such as France, Germany, Greece, Japan, Mexico: it is this last category that is normally regarded as typical of civil law systems, and is discussed in the rest of this article. The Scandinavian systems are of a hybrid character since their background law is a mix of civil law and Scandinavian customary law and have been partially codified. Likewise, the laws of the Channel Islands (Jersey, Guernsey, Alderney, Sark) are hybrids which mix Norman customary law and French civil law. A prominent example of a civil-law code would be the Napoleonic Code (1804), named after French emperor Napoleon Bonaparte. The Code comprises three components: the law of persons, property law, and commercial law. Rather than a compendium of statutes or catalog of caselaw, the Code sets out general principles as rules of law.[6] Civil law is sometimes referred to as neo-Roman law, Romano-Germanic law or Continental law. The expression civil law is a translation of Latin jus civile, or “citizens’ law”, which was the late imperial term for its legal system, as opposed to the laws governing conquered peoples (jus gentium).
CARD 21 Objectives of Criminal Law Criminal law is distinctive for the uniquely serious potential consequences or sanctions for failure to abide by its rules. Every crime is composed of criminal elements. Capital punishment may be imposed in some jurisdictions for the most serious crimes. Physical or corporal punishment may be imposed such as whipping or caning, although these punishments are prohibited in much of the world. Individuals may be incarcerated in prison or jail in a variety of conditions depending on the jurisdiction. Confinement may be solitary. Length of incarceration may vary from a day to life. Government supervision may be imposed, including house arrest, and convicts may be required to conform to particularized guidelines as part of a parole or probation regimen. Fines also may be imposed, seizing money or property from a person convicted of a crime. Five objectives are widely accepted for enforcement of the criminal law by punishments: retribution, deterrence, incapacitation, rehabilitation and restitution. Jurisdictions differ on the value to be placed on each. • Retribution – Criminals ought to suffer in some way. This is the most widely seen goal. Criminals have taken improper advantage, or inflicted unfair detriment, upon others and consequently, the criminal law will put criminals at some unpleasant disadvantage to "balance the scales." People submit to the law to receive the right not to be murdered and if people contravene these laws, they surrender the rights granted to them by the law. Thus, one who murders may be murdered himself. A related theory includes the idea of "righting the balance." • Deterrence – Individual deterrence is aimed toward the specific offender. The aim is to impose a sufficient penalty to discourage the offender from criminal behavior. General deterrence aims at society at large. By imposing a penalty on those who commit offenses, other individuals are discouraged from committing those offenses. • Incapacitation – Designed simply to keep criminals away from society so that the public is protected from their misconduct. This is often achieved through prison sentences today. The death penalty or banishment have served the same purpose. • Rehabilitation – Aims at transforming an offender into a valuable member of society. Its primary goal is to prevent further offense by convincing the offender that their conduct was wrong. • Restitution – This is a victim-oriented theory of punishment. The goal is to repair, through state authority, any hurt inflicted on the victim by the offender. For example, one who embezzles will be required to repay the amount improperly acquired. Restitution is commonly combined with other main goals of criminal justice and is closely related to concepts in the civil law.
CARD 22 Selected Criminal Laws Many laws are enforced by threat of criminal punishment, and their particulars may vary widely from place to place. The entire universe of criminal law is too vast to intelligently catalog. Nevertheless, the following are some of the more known aspects of the criminal law. The criminal law generally prohibits undesirable acts. Thus, proof of a crime requires proof of some act. Scholars label this the requirement of an actus reus or guilty act. Some crimes – particularly modern regulatory offenses – require no more, and they are known as strict liability offenses (E.g. Under theRoad traffic Act 1988 it is a strict liability offence to drive a vehicle with an alcohol concentration above the prescribed limit). Nevertheless, because of the potentially severe consequences of criminal conviction, judges at common law also sought proof of an intent to do some bad thing, the mens rea or guilty mind. As to crimes of which both actus reus and mens rea are requirements, judges have concluded that the elements must be present at precisely the same moment and it is not enough that they occurred sequentially at different times. An English court room in 1886, with Lord Chief Justice Coleridge presiding Actus reus is Latin for "guilty act" and is the physical element of committing a crime. It may be accomplished by an action, by threat of action, or exceptionally, by an omission to act, which is a legal duty to act. For example, the act of A striking B might suffice, or a parent's failure to give food to a young child also may provide the actus reus for a crime. Where the actus reus is a failure to act, there must be a duty of care. A duty can arise through contract, a voluntary undertaking, a blood relation with whom one lives, and occasionally through one's official position. Duty also can arise from one's own creation of a dangerous situation.] On the other hand, it was held in the U.K. that switching off the life support of someone in a persistent vegetative state is an omission to act and not criminal. Since discontinuation of power is not a voluntary act, not grossly negligent, and is in the patient's best interests, no crime takes place. In this case it was held that since a PVS patient could not give or withhold consent to medical treatment, it was for the doctors to decide whether treatment was in the patient's best interest. It was reasonable for them to conclude that treatment was not in the patient's best interest, and should therefore be stopped, when there was no prospect of improvement. It was never lawful to take active steps to cause or accelerate death, although in certain circumstances it was lawful to withhold life sustaining treatment, including feeding, without which the patient would die. An actus reus may be nullified by an absence of causation. For example, a crime involves harm to a person, the person's action must be the but for cause and proximate cause of the harm.] If more than one cause exists (e.g. harm comes at the hands of more than one culprit) the act must have "more than a slight or trifling link" to the harm. Causation is not broken simply because a victim is particularly vulnerable. This is known as the thin skull rule. However, it may be broken by an intervening act (novus actus interveniens) of a third party, the victim's own conduct,[17] or another unpredictable event. A mistake in medical treatment typically will not sever the chain, unless the mistakes are in themselves "so potent in causing death." Mens rea is another Latin phrase, meaning "guilty mind". This is the mental element of the crime. A guilty mind means an intention to commit some wrongful act. Intention under criminal law is separate from a person's motive.
CARD 23 Making a Law Why do we need laws? We all depend on other people. Even those who live alone depend on others to provide them with heat, light and other services. They generally accept that these services can only be provided if they obey the rules and pay their bills. Those of us who live as part of a group, perhaps a family, find that we have to follow unwritten rules which tell us how we should behave towards the other members of our group. At the college your timetable provides one set of rules, telling you which lesson you should be in at a given time. The fire tegulations are a different set of rules which could save your life. As well as belonging to a group at home, college or work, we all belong to a national group and have to obey the national rules known as laws. How Parliament makes Laws? Every year Parliament passes about 100 Laws directly by making Acts of Parliament. Parliament sometimes passes a very general law and leaves a minister to fill in the details. Using the powers given to them by Parliament, ministers become lawmakers themselves. No new law can be made by Parliament unless it has completed a number of stages in both the House of Commons and the House of Lords. The Queen also has to sign a Bill to show that it has been given the Royal Assent (a formality). Only after the Royal Assent it becomes a new law or Act of Parliament. Before this it is called a Bill. Bills can begin in the House of Lords or the House of Commons, so they can pass through Parliament in one of two ways: 1. Commons Lords Queen 2. Lords Commons Queen There are two main sorts of Bill: Private Bill and Public Bill. Private Bills deal with local matters and individuals. Public Bills deal with matters of public importance. Important Bills are usually sponsored by the Government. One example of a Government Bill is the Sea Fish (Conservation) Bill of 1992—1993, which affects the amount of time that fishing boats may spend at sea,. Although a rather old example, it illustrated well how a Government Bill becomes an Act of Parliament. This particular Bill was introduced into the Commons by the Minister of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food. This stage is called First Reading. It gives MPs notice that the Bill will soon be coming for discussion. The text is then printed and read by Members in time for the important Second Reading. Here the main purpose of the Bill is explained by the Minister of State responsible for fisheries, and the Bill is debated by the House. The House then votes to decide whether the Bill should continue its passage through Parliament. The Bill continues to its Committee Stage where eighteen Members from both Government and Opposition discuss it in detail, considering many possible changes (amendments). This is followed by Report Stage when the committee reports back to the rest of the House. At the Third Reading stage, the House decided to pass the Bill as a whole. The Bill cannot be changed at this stage — it is either accepted or rejected. Once a Bill has passed its Third Reading in the Commons, one of the Clerks at the Table carries the Bill to the House of Lords. The House of Lords has the job of reviewing Bills received from the Commons. A different group of people can often see something in a completely different way. The House of Lords often makes changes to Commons Bills. Once both Houses of Parliament have passed a Bill, then it has to go to the Queen for the Royal Assent. After receiving the Royal Assent the Bill becomes an Act of. Parliament. Even after an Act has received the Royal Assent, it may not come into force straight away. CARD 24 Types of legal professions Who is who in the law? If you are prosecuted for a crime in Britain, you may meet the following people during your process through the courts: Magistrates Magistrates are unpaid judges, usually chosen from well—respected people in the local community. They are guided on points of law by an official, the clerk. There are magistrates’ courts in most towns. Solicitors After the accused person has been arrested, the first person he or she needs to see is a solicitor. Solicitors are qualified lawyers who advise the accused and help prepare the defence case. The solicitor may represent the accused in court. A person who is too poor to afford a solicitor will usually get Legal Aid — financial help from the state. Barristers In more serious cases it is usual for the solicitor to hire a barrister to defend the accused. The barrister is trained in the law and in the skills required to argue a case in court. The barrister for the defence will be confronted by his or her opposite number, the prosecuting barrister who represents the state. Jurors A jury consists of twelve men and women from the local community. They sit in the Crown Court, with a judge, and listen to witnesses for the defence and prosecution before deciding whether the accused is guilty or innocent. In Britain the person is innocent unless found guilty: the prosecution has the burden of establishing guilt. Judges Judges are trained lawyers, nearly always ex—barristers, who sit in the Crown Court (and appeal courts). The judge rules on points of law, and makes sure that the trial is conducted properly. He or she does not decide on the guilt or innocence of the accused — that is the jury’s job. However, if the jury find the accused guilty, then the judge will pass sentence. Coroners Coroners have medical or legal training (or both) and inquire into violent or unnatural deaths. Clerks of the court Clerks look after administrative and legal matters in the courtroom. Sentencing The most common sentnces are fines, prision and probation. Probation is used often with more minor offences. A person on probation must report to a local police station at regular intervals, which restrict his or her movement. A sentence of community service means that the convicted person has to spend several hours a week doing useful work in his locality. A few more facts Children under 10 cannot be charged with a criminal offence. Offenders between 10 and 17 are tried by special juvenile courts. The death penalty technically still exists in Britain for some rare offences, such as treason, but is no longer used. The punishment for murder is a life sentence. This can be much less than a lifetime in prison, depending on factors such as good behaviour. The most common punishment for crimes — 80 per cent of the total — is a fine.
CARD 25 The question of law Jurisprudence is the philosophy of law, or the science which deals with positive law and legal relations. The study of jurisprudence asks questions such as: What is law? Where does it come from? Why do we have it? When do we first meet it? Where have you met it? In my opinion, no nation that does not have an informed populace in jurisprudence can be strong and free. Fundamentally, law may be called rules governing behavior between people. Purposes for law include: to regulate human relations; to determine ownership (control) of property; to fix parameters of freedom in community and relationships by restraining anarchy (for without law there is only anarchy); to produce justice. But so long as we agree and live out our agreements, we do not need written law. But when we disagree, we must have a system designed to restore us to agreement or decide between us so we do not fall into blood feuds. To have a system we must recognize need for a Rule of Law. But who decides what is or is not justice? A legislature passing laws? Public opinion directing legislators? Judges? Juries? Money? Lawyers? Yes, but No - each individual will decide, inside him, when in conflict, whether he will accept the outcome as justice or not. Law can be spoken of in many different ways: Political, Criminal, Civil, and Equitable, or Constitutional,  Statutory and Procedural. Or case precedent (stare decisis) or local custom (tradition); or in a vertical manner - international, then national, then district, then city, etc.; or repressive, democratic, autonomous, common, etc. Yet all law will, at times, seem arbitrary and capricious. That is because people make the decisions, not the law - the law is not self-acting. Rule of Law asks the question: “Are these decisions of people made in a framework of law, or a framework of no law?” The problem always was, and is: What is an adequate base for law? What is adequate so that a human desire for freedom can exist without anarchy and yet be gentle enough to provide a form that will not become arbitrary tyranny? Jurisprudence has to do with administration, or weighing of justice, or right values. All pronouncements of right and wrong are moral concerns, at their base religious. In recent years we have witnessed numerous marches on Washington in which one group or another demanded new “rights”; not freedom from state control but entitlement to state action, protection, or subsidy. In creating rights a state inevitably enlarges its bureaucracy. As a state creates new rights, it necessarily diminishes some rights for others. The modern secular view holds that individuals have just such rights as laws give them. Rights must have a reference point and specific context or they are meaningless; reference point determines the nature of the right exercised, defines who possesses it and sets limits to others who must respect it. When we fail to live at peace, we need compulsion - so the law exists to compel. It does this by punishment. Man’s methods of law place two people in combat against each other, using advocates (lawyers) who, in the normal setting, keep the parties separate from one another. In this, we say that we search for the truth of the case.
CARD 26 Judiciary Criminal Proceedings There are two courts of trial and two courts of appeal for criminal proceedings in England, Wales and Northern Ireland. The courts of trial are the Magistrates’ Court and the Crown Court, and the courts of appeal are the Court of Appeal and the House of Lords. The Magistrates’ Court The most common type of law court in England and Wales is the Magistrates’ Court. The Magistrates’ Court is the lower court of trial. It deals with summary offences. More serious criminal cases (indictable offences) then go to the Crown Court. Civil cases are dealt with in County courts. Magistrates’ Courts have limited powers of penally but may commit a convicted offender to the Crown Court if it is considered that the powers of the Magistrates’ Court are insufficient. Approximately 95% of all prosecutions are dealt with in the Magistrates’ Courts. Juvenile Courts are composed of specially trained magistrates. They try most charges against children and young persons under the age of 18 years. The Crown Court The Crown Court is the senior court of trial for criminal offences. The courts are established at various centres throughout the country. The courts are presided over by either a High Court Judge, Circuit Judge or Recorder who sits with a jury. The Crown Court for the City of London is the Central Criminal Court, also known as the Old Bailey. The Crown Court may also hear appeals against conviction and/or sentence for some offences dealt with at the Magistrates’ Court.
The Court of Appeal The Court of Appeal hears appeals from criminal cases heard in the Crown Courts. The House of Lords The House of Lords is the most senior and final court of appeal. Civil Proceedings Civil proceedings consist of litigation about property, family matters and actions to obtain financial redress for damage to property and personal injury. The courts of trial for such County Courts are local courts and are presided over by a single Judge. The High Court of Justice is situated in London. Some cases before the High Court of Justice may be heard before a jury.
CARD 27 Types of legal professions Who is who in the law? If you are prosecuted for a crime in Britain, you may meet the following people during your process through the courts: Magistrates Magistrates are unpaid judges, usually chosen from well—respected people in the local community. They are guided on points of law by an official, the clerk. There are magistrates’ courts in most towns. Solicitors After the accused person has been arrested, the first person he or she needs to see is a solicitor. Solicitors are qualified lawyers who advise the accused and help prepare the defence case. The solicitor may represent the accused in court. A person who is too poor to afford a solicitor will usually get Legal Aid — financial help from the state. Barristers In more serious cases it is usual for the solicitor to hire a barrister to defend the accused. The barrister is trained in the law and in the skills required to argue a case in court. The barrister for the defence will be confronted by his or her opposite number, the prosecuting barrister who represents the state. Jurors A jury consists of twelve men and women from the local community. They sit in the Crown Court, with a judge, and listen to witnesses for the defence and prosecution before deciding whether the accused is guilty or innocent. In Britain the person is innocent unless found guilty: the prosecution has the burden of establishing guilt. Judges Judges are trained lawyers, nearly always ex—barristers, who sit in the Crown Court (and appeal courts). The judge rules on points of law, and makes sure that the trial is conducted properly. He or she does not decide on the guilt or innocence of the accused — that is the jury’s job. However, if the jury find the accused guilty, then the judge will pass sentence. Coroners Coroners have medical or legal training (or both) and inquire into violent or unnatural deaths. Clerks of the court Clerks look after administrative and legal matters in the courtroom. Sentencing The most common sentnces are fines, prision and probation. Probation is used often with more minor offences. A person on probation must report to a local police station at regular intervals, which restrict his or her movement. A sentence of community service means that the convicted person has to spend several hours a week doing useful work in his locality. A few more facts Children under 10 cannot be charged with a criminal offence. Offenders between 10 and 17 are tried by special juvenile courts. The death penalty technically still exists in Britain for some rare offences, such as treason, but is no longer used. The punishment for murder is a life sentence. This can be much less than a lifetime in prison, depending on factors such as good behaviour. The most common punishment for crimes — 80 per cent of the total — is a fine.
CARD 28 The shoplifter Mark Diamond was a thief. He had been to prison several times. Last time he was sentenced to ten months in prison for shoplifting when he tried to steal a silver necklace for his girlfriend Jane. On the day he left prison, first he had a good meal in a cafe, then went to the cinema. He enjoyed being free again. He took a long walk in town looking at the windows. He had a few dollars and wanted to buy a present for his girlfriend Jane. He saw a pretty silk dress in one window but he didn’t like colour, he saw a green cotton blouse in another shop window but he didn’t like the cut of the blouse. He looked at a fur coat in another shop but it was too expensive. Then he saw a nice leather bag and first he thought that Jane would also like it. He was just going to buy it but he changed his mind and thought it would make a poor present. Then he went into a jeweller’s shop. There he saw a nice gold bracelet on the counter. He always wanted a present like that. He had a quick look around and saw nobody was watching him. The assistant was showing a diamond engagement ring to a customer. The next minute the gold bracelet was in Mark’s pocket and he started for the door. At that moment, he felt a hand on his shoulder. “Young man”, said the owner of the shop, “I saw you steal a bracelet. I’ll have to call the police”. Mark went pale. “Oh, no. Don’t do that. I’ll pay fo the bracelet. Yes, I’ll pay for it”. The owner of the shop took a look at the gold bracelet and said, “All right, it’ll be £600”. “Well”, said Mark, “Couldn’t you show me anything cheaper? 1 really don’t want to spend that much”. CARD 29 Prosecution The Crown Prosecution Service (CPS) The prosecution of offenders in England and Wales is the responsibility of the Crown Prosecution Service. It was set up-in 1986 to prosecute criminal cases resulting from police investigations. The Head of the CPS is the Director of Public Prosecutions (DPP). The CPS handles about 1,4 million cases every year and employs about 6,000 staff. Over 2,000 of these staff are barristers or solicitors. The staff are located in 98 offices throughout England and Wales.Before 1986, the police investigated crimes, charged suspects and then took cases to court, sometimes using their own or a local lawyer. This changed under the Prosecution of Offenders Act 1985, which created the CPS and separated the investigation stage from the prosecution stage. Now the CPS makes the decision whether to continue a case and bring to court. The Prosecution Process After the Police have investigated a crime and passed the papers to the CPS, one of the lawyers — called a Crown Prosecutor—carefully reviews the papers to decide whether or not to go ahead with the case. The prosecutor’s decision is based on the two tests set out in the Code for Crown Prosecutors. The code is a booklet which sets out the general principles which prosecutors must apply when they decide whether to continue a case. CARD 30 Prosecution The two tests set out in the Code are as follows: 1) Is there enough evidence? 2) Is it “in the public interest” for us to prosecute? A case has to pass both these tests before the CPS can start or continue a prosecution. To examine a case, the prosecutor reviews it to see if there is enough evidence to provide a “realistic prospect of conviction”. If there is not, and the police say there is no more evidence or none will become available in the nearest future, the case will be stopped there. However, the police can be asked to look at the case again, if more evidence becomes available at a late date. If the prosecutor thinks that there is enough evidence to start or continue a prosecution, he or she will then consider whether a prosecution is needed “in the public interest”. This means that the prosecutor must think carefully about all the factors for and against a prosecution, and assess in each case whether a prosecution should go ahead. Some of the public interest factors which are taken into account are set out in the Code for Crown Prosecutors. For example, a prosecution is likely to be needed if: a weapon was used or violence was threatened during an offence;the motive for the offence was any form of discrimination; or the offence was committed against a person serving the public such as a police officer. Crown Prosecutors must always think very carefully about the interest of the victim of the crime. This is an important factor when prosecutors decide where the public interest lies. Presenting cases in Court If the prosecutor thinks that there is enough evidence, and that a prosecution is needed in the public interest, the case is then presented in the magistrates’ court. The CPS lawyer must present the facts to the court fairly. Criminal cases are divided into the following three types of offence. 1. “Summary only” offences (such as minor motoring offences and disorderly behaviour) are less serious, and can onlybe heard in the magistrates’ court. 2. “Either way” offences are more serious and can be heard in either the magistrates’ court or before a judge and jury in the Crown Court. (These include all cases of theft and some categories of assault). Usually, the magistrates decide whether the case should be heard in the Crown Court But sometimes when the magistrates say they will hear a case, the defendant can choose to be dealt with in the Crown Court. 3. “Indictable only” offences (such as murder or rape) are the most serious, and must always be heard in the Crown Court which has more sentencing powers.
Задание: перевести предложения по юридической тематике с русского языка на английский
Translate the sentences from Russian into English.
1. Основу системы английского общего права составляют четыре базовые отрасли: договорное право, право собственности, деликтное право и уголовное право. Обычно в английских университетах студенты эти предметы изучают на первом курсе.
2. Наряду с общим правом, возникающим исторически как результат правотворческой деятельности Вестминстерских королевских судов (судов общего права), другой структурный компонент системы права образует право справедливости, нормы которого нередко вносят довольно существенные коррективы в общее право.
3. До 1875 г. применение права справедливости относилось к юрисдикции лишь Канцлерского суда. С тех пор различия между общим правом и правом справедливости во многом стерлись.
4. Права человека, понятие и виды которых представлены в данной статье, имеют нормативное закрепление, которое представлено отдельными актами. Следует отметить, что юридические свободы социума имеют структурированную, иерархичную систему регулирования.
5. Наивысшим актом в данной системе является Всеобщая декларация прав человека ООН. Именно в ней закреплены основные и незаменимые виды прав и свобод человека без учета государственного происхождения.
6. Европейское право – особая правовая система, охватывающая правовые установления европейской системы защиты прав человека и европейское интеграционное право, регулирующее взаимоотношения, складывающиеся в процессе европейской интеграции.
7. Последнее включает, впредь до введения в действие Конституции ЕС, право Европейских сообществ и право Европейского союза, а равно отрасли права, формирующиеся в процессе становления и эволюции европейских интеграционных образований.
8. По отраслям права нормы права подразделяются на нормы конституционного, административного, уголовного, гражданского и других отраслей права.
9. По сфере отношений гражданского общества нормы права делятся на нормы частного права и на нормы публичного права. Нормы частного права выражают интересы отдельных лиц и их объединений. Нормы публичного права объединяют нормы, регулирующие деятельность государства, его органов и должностных лиц.
10. По характеру содержащихся в правовых нормах правил поведения нормы права делятся на: управомочивающие, обязывающие и запрещающие.
11. Правоприменение - это решение конкретного дела, жизненного случая, определенной правовой ситуации. Это «приложение» закона, общих правовых норм к конкретным лицам, конкретным обстоятельствам.
12. Применением правовых норм занимаются компетентные органы и должностные лица, и только в рамках предоставленных им полномочий.
13. Аграрное право — комплексная, специализированная отрасль права, представляющая собой взаимосвязанную систему правовых норм, регулирующих аграрные отношения по производству, переработке и реализации сельскохозяйственной продукции, про-изводственно-техническому обслуживанию сельскохозяйственных товаропроизводителей и социальному обеспечению работников сельского хозяйства.
14. Национальные суды применяют иностранное право только при разрешении частно-правовых споров, связанных с иностранным правопорядком. При этом иностранное право применяется исключительно в силу постановлений национального законодательства либо международного договора.
15. В основном суды применяют иностранные публичные нормы с частно-правовым эффектом. Такие нормы есть в большинстве отраслей современного права – например, финансовое право представляет собой публичное право, однако его нормы, регулирующие финансирование коммерческой деятельности, являются нормами с частно-правовым эффектом.
16. Применение норм иностранного публичного права в основном осуществляется по правилам международных соглашений. В частности, Конвенция СНГ о правовой помощи 1993 г. содержит положение о невозможности отказать в применении иностранной правовой нормы только по причине ее публично-правового характера.
17. Коллизионная норма – норма общего, абстрактного, отсылочного характера, которая не содержит материальной модели поведения, не устанавливает прав и обязанностей сторон, а на основе заложенного в ней объективного критерия определяет, право какого государства должно регулировать соответствующие отношения.
18. Связь частно-правового отношения с иностранным правопорядком предполагает возможность применения иностранного права. Эта возможность опосредована коллизионной нормой, которая выступает связующим звеном между правом данного государства и отношением с иностранным элементом.
19. Юридическому и физическому лицу просто необходимо знать основополагающие аспекты договорных отношений. Договорное право как отрасль не сформирована, оно регулируется нормами гражданского права и является подотраслью именно гражданского права. Настоящее время показывает необходимость в качественном и профессиональном подходе к вопросам, связанным договорным правом.
20. Основным определением договорного права является определение самого понятия «договор» - соглашение двух или нескольких лиц об установлении, изменении или прекращении гражданских прав и обязанностей.
21. Договорное право – фактически подотрасль гражданского права. Основы договорного права заложены в первой части Гражданского кодекса Российской Федерации в третьем разделе общей части обязательственного права. Именно в этом разделе рассматриваются вопросы договоров и обязательств.
22. Международное морское право - совокупность общепризнанных норм и принципов, определяющих правовое положение морских пространств и регламентирующих отношения между государствами в процессе различных видов мореплавания, эксплуатации и использования морей и океанов в мирное и военное время.
23. Основные принципы международного морского права имеют императивный (обязательный) характер и их действие не может быть приостановлено государствами в своих взаимоотношениях.
24. Нормы международного права формируются в результате внешнеполитической деятельности государств. Средством осуществления внешней политики государства является дипломатия.
25. Предмет земельного права - это общественные отношения, возникающие в связи с распределением, использованием и охраной земель, т. е. земельные правоотношения.
26. Земельные правоотношения - это общественные отношения, которые складываются между органами власти, организациями и частными лицами по поводу распределения, использования и охраны земель и которые регулируются нормами земельного права. Эти группы отношений составляют предмет земельного права, а общим у них выступает объект – земля.
27.Римские юристы различали публичное право (лат. jus publicum) и частное право (лат. jus privatum). Первоеотносится "к положению римского государства", второе "к выгоде отдельных лиц" (по определению юриста Доминиция Ульпиана, III в.).
28.Английское право в отличие от более собирательного и менее корректного понятия «Британское право», является правовой системой Англии и Уэльса и лежит в основе правовых систем большинства государств Британского Содружества наций и США, а также правовых систем смешанного типа.
9. Условиями действительности обычая в качестве источника права признавались необходимость многократного его применения, непротиворечивость этическим нормам и нравственности, общеизвестность. Судебная практика в дореволюционной России рассматривалась в качестве важного источника изучения торгового права, но не признавалась источником права.
30. Особенностью Российского семейного права является то, что в отличие от других отраслей права оно регулирует отношения в семье и ограничено ее рамками. В действующем семейном законодательстве четко сформулированы основные принципы и цели правового регулирования семейных правоотношений.
31. По специфике правового регулирования отраслевые нормы делятся на материальные и процессуальные.
32. Институт юридического, политического, социального и иного характера всегда имеет понятие и определенную структуру. Английское право в данном случае является ответвлением права в его классической форме.
33. Вся система норм является банальным сводом правил поведения, с которыми знакомо большое количество людей; общеобязательный характер говорит о том, что система норм распространяет свое действие на всех и каждого.
34. Государство гарантирует действие права путем установления юридической ответственности; право выражает сознание и волю людей; система норм выражается в официальных государственных актах.
35. Английское право распространялось на территории всех подконтрольных Великобритании держав. При этом оно реально действует вплоть до сегодняшнего дня.
36. Отправной точкой британской юридической системы стал 1189 год. Именно с этого момента судебные прецеденты приобретают вид настоящего правового источника, а вся структура в целом становится общеобязательной,
37. Английское общее право во все времена влияло на юридические структуры иных государств. Следует отметить, что Британия долгое время была одной из самых больших колониальных держав. Таким образом, на многих подданных ей территориях действовало английское право в его первост первостепенном виде.
38. Английская система права имеет в своем составе большое количество отраслей. По аналогии с континентальными юридическими структурами отрасли регулируют общественные отношения того или иного характера. При этом каждая из них имеет ряд собственных специфических особенностей.
39. Существуют и иные юридические отрасли в составе британской системы, например: конституционное право; административное право; трудовая отрасль и т. п. Больше всего споров в научных кругах вызывает английское гражданское право.
40. При этом в Великобритании нет традиционного деления юридической системы на приватное и публичное право вообще. Но гражданские общественные отношения, конечно же, регулируются.
41. Как и многие иные положения британской юридической системы, её основой являются совершенно нетипичные для континентального строя источники. Специфика в данном случае существует по разным причинам. Например, достаточно большую роль играет историческое развитие вдали от континентальных веяний.
42. Таким образом, основными в английском праве на сегодняшний день являются следующие источники: судебный прецедент; акты (законы); обычаи. Указанные источники перечислены по порядку их юридической силы. Как мы видим, ключевое значение в английском праве отыгрывает судебный прецедент.
43. Судебная практика на территории Англии во все времена отыгрывала главенствующую роль. По своей сути, прецедент – это решение высшего органа, осуществляющего правосудие, которое становится общепринятым и может использовать при рассмотрении аналогичных дел.
44. Ведь прецедент максимально конкретизирован, в отличие от норм законов. Представленный источник появляется из деятельности таких инстанций, как Палата лордов, Апелляционный и Высокий суд.
45. Нормативные акты являются вторым значимым источником всей британской системы. В континентальных странах законы порождает право. Перевод на английский манер существенно изменяет данный принцип.
46. В Великобритании законы (или же статуты, как их принято называть) принимаются, как правило, правительством на основе делегированных парламентом полномочий
47. В Великобритании существует две разновидности данного явления. Первый вид – это конституционные обычаи. Они играют достаточно значимую роль в процессе деятельности всего государства. Ведь конституционными обычаями определяется компетенция большинства органов власти.
48. Вторым видом являются обычаи, регулирующие общественные отношения различного характера. Но тут есть некоторые особенности. Факт в том, что обычай в Великобритании будет признаваться, если он имеет древний, старинный характер
49. Право – это основной регулятор общественных отношений, построенный на принципе общеобязательности и нормативности. В структурном виде данная категория представляет собой иерархичную систему правовых норм, которые влияют на те или иные общественные отношения.
50. Юридические свободы социума имеют структурированную, иерархичную систему регулирования. Наивысшим актом в ней является Всеобщая декларация прав человека ООН. Именно в ней закреплены основные и незаменимые виды прав и свобод человека без учета государственного происхождения.
51. Что касается Российской Федерации, то эта страна является современным демократическим государством. Как и во многих подобных державах, права человека в РФ закреплены на законодательном уровне. Основные человеческие правомочия «существуют» в главе 2 Конституции России.
52. Личные правомочия человека относятся к первому поколению юридических возможностей. То есть, их наличие ничем не обусловлено и достаточно сложно ограничивается. Личные права являются природными и неотчуждаемыми. Как объект притязания государство не может их использовать
53. Наличие подобных юридических правомочий необходимо во время построения гражданского, демократического общества. К личным правам на сегодняшний день относятся следующие, например: - право на жизнь; - личную неприкосновенность; - право
на достоинство личности; - право пользоваться языком родным; - иметь неприкосновенное жилье.
54. Личностными свободами второго поколения можно назвать политические права. Эта группа показывает связь человека и государства, а также обеспечивает реальное участие граждан в политическом процессе страны. –
55. Политические права, по сути, являются продуктом демократии, так как их понятие было сформировано во времена активного революционного движения по всему миру. Степень фактической реализации политических прав показывает уровень демократичности государства.
56. Экономические права и свободы человека показывают его роль в процессе распределения материальных благ и построении экономики государства в целом. Помимо этого, при помощи экономических правомочий люди имеют вход на общий рынок для повышения своего материального положения.
57. На сегодняшний день существует ряд правомочий, которыми регулируются наиболее динамические отрасли жизнедеятельности человека. К числу подобных можно отнести социальную, экологическую и культурные сферы.
58. Слово "закон" по своему смыслу означает "предел", "правило", положенное свободе действия и воли. Проще говоря, это модель поведения общего характера, обязательная для всех лиц.
59. Он заключается в том, что под термином "закон" имеется в виду постановление высшей власти. С древности на других языках сформировалось аналогичное значение соответствующих понятий.
60. Закон представляет собой нормативно-правовой акт, который принимается высшим представительным государственным органом в установленном порядке. Он регулирует наиболее важные отношения, возникающие в обществе, с точки зрения потребностей и интересов населения.
61. Например, что такое Федеральный закон о бюджете? Это акт, который в большей части состоит из финансовых показателей. Вместе с этим он включает в себя и отдельные нормы общего характера.
62. Что такое действие нормативного акта? Оно предполагает обязательность для исполнения всеми лицами.
63. Закон принимается высшим представительным госорганом либо самим населением в результате референдума. Этот порядок обусловлен тем, что с древности нормативный акт является выражением высшей власти в стране.
64. В древневосточных государствах, которые не знали современной конституционной системы власть принадлежала верховному правителю. Он, в свою очередь, в соответствии с нравственными и религиозными убеждениями, получил ее и сами законы от Бога.
65. Не каждый нормативный акт имеет те признаки, которыми его наделяет конституционная система. Но если говорить о том, что такое закон в рамках этого строя, то он остается выражением высшей власти в стране.
66. В качестве одного из основных выступает тот факт, что принятие актов осуществляется исключительно органами народного представительства либо голосованием граждан. Вместе с этим в Конституции прямо не предусмотрено утверждение законов в результате референдумов.
67. Обращаясь к приведенным выше разъяснениям о том, что такое закон, следует отметить, что он призван обеспечить упорядоченное развитие политических, социальных и экономических сфер. Среди прочих нормативных актов он обладает наибольшим юридическим действием.
68. Никакой подзаконный акт не может влиять на законодательное регулирование. В противном случае его надлежит привести в соответствие с высшими нормами либо отменить.
69. Утверждение проекта нормативного акта осуществляется в рамках специального процесса. В современных парламентских демократических государствах принятие законов осуществляется представительными органами.
70. Это реализуется, как правило, посредством ограничения круга субъектов, имеющих законодательную инициативу. К ним, в частности, относят депутатов, правительство, главу государства, высшие судебные органы и прочие институты власти.
71. Законы представляют собой наиболее общую форму норм. В Конституции и других законодательных актах часто содержатся ссылки на те, или иные положения.
72. Кодексы содержат системы норм, которые наиболее полно регламентируют определенный круг отношений. Как правило, они охватывают конкретные сферы общественной жизни.
73. Как правило, они охватывают конкретные сферы общественной жизни. Кодексы отличаются наибольшей стабильностью. Они занимают своеобразное доминирующее положение в соответствующей законодательной отрасли.
74. Кроме юридической сферы, немаловажное значение в жизни общества имеет и моральная. Весьма распространенной считается теория Канта.
75. Говоря о том, что такое нравственный закон, мыслитель указывал на его императивность. Кант говорил о моральном долге человека.
76. В качестве стержня нравственности выступает добрая воля. Она выражает поступки, которые совершаются только во имя морального долга, но не ради иных целей (из-за выгоды, корысти, чтобы не выглядеть плохим в глазах остальных людей и так далее).
77. Кант считал, что нельзя называть моральным поступок, совершенный под влиянием чувственной склонности, даже если он совпадает с нравственным законом. По мнению философа, поведение человека должно отражать уважение к постулатам. 7
8. В теории Канта различают закон и максимы. Последние выражают субъективные принципы воли конкретного единичного лица.
79. Говоря о том, что такое закон морали, Кант указывает на общезначимость. Принцип волеизъявления имеет силу для каждого человека.
80. Каждый день мы сталкиваемся с законом в повседневной жизни. Он регулирует многие процессы, о которых мы не задумываемся – покупки в магазине, оплата проезда в общественном транспорте.
81. Тем самым закон противостоит хаосу и представляет собой правильный ход вещей, тот ход, который обеспечивает гармонию и баланс. Со времен появления в человеческой жизни субординации, иерархии, человек нуждается в регулировании его отношений с обществом.
82. В целях упорядочивания и поддержания нормального функционирование жизнедеятельности общества, человеку понадобились определенные регуляторы общественных отношений.
83. Закон и право наиболее легко можно представить как форму и содержание, где закон выступает формой, а право содержанием. Закон является внешней формой выражения права.
84. Юридически закон является нормативно правовым актом, принятым особым органом, в особо установленном порядке, закрепляющим определенные положения, регулирующие общественные отношения.
85. Отсутствие установленных законом правил может привести к хаосу и беспорядку, мы не будем знать, чем руководствоваться в спорах и ежедневной жизни. В тоже время, закон не регулирует, и не должен регулировать, отношения между людьми, не представляющие опасности для общества.
86. Например, отношения дружбы никак не регулируются законом, а запрет на убийство – вполне конкретная правовая норма.
87. Закон именовался lex, некоторые утверждают, что данное слово берет свои корни из фраз: ставить на место, приводить в порядок, однако более правильной представляется точка зрения, согласно которой, слово lex берет свои корни от глагола log (читать), поскольку слово lex само по себе употребляли не так часто, как словосочетание lex scriptum (писаный закон), право именовалось ius, синонимом которого было слово «справедливость».
88. Откуда произошло слово «закон»? Лингвистически термин «закон» был закреплен на латыни, в то же время произошло закрепление термина «право», что позволяло определить различия между ними.
89. Из СМИ мы узнаем, что кто-то в очередной раз принял закон о чем-то. Однако мы не часто задумываемся, что же такое закон на самом деле и почему само его наличие так важно для общества в целом и для каждого из нас.
90. Если в государстве правоприменение занимает слишком большое место, это говорит о том, что свобода в данной стране не в почете, а само оно является отнюдь не демократическим.
91. Это такая ситуация, когда правоотношение не может возникнуть без властного решения государственного органа исполнительной власти, который должен конкретизировать имеющееся у субъекта права субъективное право (например, произвести начисление пенсии, проверить основания для получения льготы).
92. Одним словом, «наделить» правом (что чаще) или обязанностью (гораздо реже) — это то, что требуется от государственного органа. Данную форму правоприменения условно можно было бы назвать правонаделением.
93. Имеются в виду случаи, когда содержание правоотношения должно подвергнуться предварительной проверке со стороны исполнительного органа. Это выражается в виде выдачи им разрешения (например, регистрация автомобиля, предпринимательской деятельности, договора о купле-продаже квартиры) с целью предотвратить возможный вред обществу или государству.
94. Споры о праве — ситуация обыденная, и вряд ли стоит осуждать лиц, которые не могут прийти к согласию. Не секрет, что субъекты права имеют собственные интересы и порой рассматривают все только со своей позиции.
95. Подобная ситуация встречается, когда совершено правонарушение, т.е. умалено чье-то субъективное право и его надо защитить, а для этого привлечь нарушителя к юридической ответственности и восстановить права потерпевшего.
96. В этих случаях правоприменительную деятельность выполняют государственные служащие, занимающие различные должности в исполнительных органах. Смысл их деятельности состоит в гармонизации частных (граждан и организаций) и публичных интересов.
97. Здесь речь идет о таких формах применения, как установление юридических фактов, рассмотрение споров и применение санкций за правонарушения.
98. В подлинно развитой юридической системе в настоящий принцип возведено то, что рассмотрение споров и правонарушений осуществляется компетентными в этой сфере, правоохранительными органами, не зависящими от политических или административных руководящих органов, защищенными от любого давления или угроз.
99. Центральное место среди правоохранительных органов занимают суды. По мере развития общества роль судов будет возрастать. Поэтому в дальнейшем судебному правоприменению будет уделено особое внимание.
100. Суд — независимый орган, и он способен со стороны посмотреть на то, кто прав в спорной ситуации (например, раздел имущества, определение места жительства детей в случае развода). 101. Основными задачами полиции, как одного из правоохранительных органов, являются обеспечение личной безопасности граждан, выявление, предупреждение и пресечение преступлений и правонарушений, охрана общественного порядка и, возможно, самое важное – оказание помощи граждан в защите их прав.
102. Начиная с 1960-х гг. в Конституцию было внесено несколько изменений, значительно ограничивающих свободу действий полиции при допросе, аресте, розыске, захвате и применении насильственных мер, приведших к летальному исходу.
103. Они играют ведущую роль в процессе диагностики и классификации жалоб, пострадавших и правонарушителей, а затем другие люди, вовлеченные в эту систему, принимают решение, как поступить с полученной информацией
104. Они утверждают, что полиция является одним из многочисленных институтов, занятых сбором и использованием информации для того, чтобы оценивать степень опасности, реагировать на нее и контролировать ее.
105. Первоначально Европарламент формировался из специально делегированных депутатов национальных парламентов. С 1979 г. депутаты Европарламента избираются прямым тайным голосованием в государствах — членах ЕС.
106. После вступления в ЕС в январе 1986 г. Испании и Португалии, а также с учетом участия в выборах в Европарламент представителей от Восточной Германии число депутатов составило 567. После вступления 1 января 1995 г. в ЕС еще трех государств — Австрии, Финляндии и Швеции — им были выделены национальные квоты, и численность депутатов Европарламента составила 626.
107. Всей деятельностью Европарламента и его органов руководит Бюро, состоящее из председателя Европарламента и 14 заместителей. Те же должностные лица и председатели политических групп формируют расширенное Бюро Европарламента.
108. Бюро Европарламента вырабатывает, в частности, повестку дня его пленарных сессий. Все члены Бюро, включая председателя Европарламента, избираются сроком на два с половиной года.
109. В случае запроса мнения Европарламента со стороны Совета министров комитет назначает одного из; своих членов докладчиком по рассматриваемому вопросу. Комитеты могут готовить доклады также по своей собственной инициативе, хотя и с разрешения Бюро Европарламента.
110. Законодательство ЕС принимается Советом министров на основе предложений Комиссии ЕС. Заседания Совета министров в отличие от заседаний любого парламента всегда закрытые. Во многих случаях Европарламент имеет лишь право представлять свое мнение.
111. Акты, издаваемые институтами ЕС, являются инструментами прямого действия в государствах-членах. Это порождает так называемый демократический дефицит в ЕС, поскольку ни напрямую избираемый Европейский парламент, ни национальные парламенты государств - членов не в состоянии эффективно контролировать правительственную политику.
112. Единый европейский акт (1987 г.) явился ответом на эту критику. Он расширил полномочия Европарламента и внес изменения в учредительные договоры сообщества.
113. Единый европейский акт также наделил Европарламент правом одобрять или отвергать соглашения о присоединении к ЕС или об ассоциациях с государствами-нечленами.
114. Согласно Договору о Европейском Союзе, вступившему в силу 1 ноября 1993 г., Европейский парламент получил новые полномочия по участию в законодательном процессе, в частности право принятия совместных с Советом министров и Комиссией решений, касающихся создания внутреннего рынка, свободного передвижения рабочей силы, учреждения компаний (некоторых аспектов), подготовки многолетних программ исследований, общих программ по охране окружающей среды, развития трансъевропейских сетей, мер по защите потребителей, а также вопросов общественного здоровья и культуры.
115. Компетенция Европарламента увеличивается в связи с заключением договоров ЕС с государствами — не членами и другими международными организациями. В соответствии с Договором о Европейском Союзе согласие Европарламента требуется не только для соглашений о присоединении или об ассоциации, но также и для всех международных соглашений, которые имеют существенное финансовое и договорное значение.
116. Одним из новых полномочий Европарламента является право учреждать комиссию по расследованиям в тех случаях, когда он считает, что право ЕС было нарушено. Он также может
117. Самим фактом своего существования Европейский парламент разрушал многие веками выработанные традиции. Парламенты, как считалось, могут быть только в государствах (как унитарных, так и федеративных), являясь их отличительной чертой.
118. У Европейского парламента появились четкие полномочия в бюджетной сфере только в 1970-е гг. В Римском договоре 1957 г. они, как мы отмечали выше, были лишь обозначены.
119. Деятельность Европарламента в сфере контроля за исполнением бюджета регулируется правовыми актами различного юридического значения: Договором о ЕС, актами органов сообществ, соглашениями между этими органами, решениями Европейского суда по поводу отношений между Европарламентом и другими подразделениями сложной структуры ЕС.
120. Одним из органов с особым статусом, который возглавляет Президент России, является Государственный совет Российской Федерации.
121. Государственный совет РФ - совещательный орган, содействующий реализации полномочий главы государства по вопросам обеспечения согласованного функционирования и взаимодействия органов государственной власти.
122. Принцип верховенства права - это фундаментальный конституционный принцип. Согласно его требованиям все равны перед правом, поскольку закон не является единственным (или преимущественным) источником правовых норм. Государство выступает на правовом поле как один из субъектов права наряду с частными лицами.
123. Другая особенность английской правовой системы состоит в том, что прецеденты продолжают оставаться для нее основным источником права. Поэтому есть основания относить правовую систему Англии к прецедентному типу права.
124. Система прецедентов связана с тем, что судья обязан применять правила, сформулированные в решении суда, принятом ранее.
125. Особенности многовекового развития права Англии как права прецедентного предопределили внутреннею противоречивость его системы, которая в цело плохо поддается систематизации. Так как ни одна отрасль английского права не кодифицирована полностью, считается, что право Англии избежало кодификации.
126. Однако такая цель поставлена перед Правовой комиссией Англии учреждённой в 1965 году как законопроектный орган. В компетенцию комиссии входит подготовка крупных консолидированных законодательных актов применительно к разным отраслям права с перспективой реформы всего права Англии вплоть до его кодификации.
127. В последнее время среди источников права Англии в значительной степени возросла роль делегированного законодательства. По сути, делегированное законодательство представляет собой ведомственное регулирование, осуществляемое правительством и соответствующими органами исполнительности власти на основании полномочий, переданных (делегированных) парламентом.
128. Еще одной особенностью английской правовой системы является сознательная судебная процедура - это означает, что суд, разрешая как гражданские, так и уголовные дела, остается нейтральным и заслушивает доводы каждой стороны процесса.
129. Право однородно: отрасли права не выделяются, все суды имеют общую юрисдикцию. Такие понятия, как родительская власть, узуфрукт, подлог, непреодолимая сила отсутствуют.
130. Английская судебная власть отличается независимостью и автономией, а судебная система - сложностью. Правосудие в Англии традиционно конвертируется в высших судебных инстанциях.
131. Проводиться деление на высокое правосудие, осуществляемое высшими судами (Верховный суд (в составе Высокого суда, Суда короны и Аппеляционного суда), палата лордов, Судебный комитет Тайного совета), и низшее правосудие, осуществляемое большим числом нижестоящих судов (суды графств, магистраты) и квазиюридических органов (управлений, комиссий, трибуналов).
132. Под термином «источник» в самом распространенном значении в сфере права понимается сила, создающая право, а также это форма в которой содержится правовое решение государства. С помощью формы право обретает свои неотъемлемые права черты и признаки: общеобязательность, общеизвестность и т.д. понятия источника имеет значение емкости, в которую заключены юридические нормы.
133. Уолкер Р. Отмечает, что «основой любого суждения о праве является юридический источник. Юридические источники - это как бы ворота, через которые новые принципы могут найти вход в право».
134. Если факты, обнаруженные судом по делу, которое он рассматривает, достаточно схожи, а также, если предыдущие решение принято вышестоящим судом или (в порядке исключения) судом равной юрисдикции, суд обязан следовать предыдущему судебному решению. В последнее время отмечается сближение прецедентного и статутного права по их функциональному значению.
135. В правовой системе Англии отсутствует подразделение права на публичное и частное. Вместо этого используется деление на право справедливости и общее право.
136. Изначально действовала система общего права, нормы которого практически не поддавались изменению и нередко отличались суровой ответственностью. Право справедливости было призвано дополнить общее право системой более гибких норм, основанных на таких принципах, как» суд по совести, а не по традиции и обыкновению» и равенство сторон.
137. Право - это система норм, выработанных обществом для саморегулирования. В отличие от моральных, нормы права закреплены в Конституции, а их незыблемость охраняется государством.
138. За нарушение правовых норм на гражданина налагаются санкции в виде ограничения свободы или штрафа.
139. Нередко здесь рождаются разногласия, которые могут перейти в обширные конфликты. Чтобы такого не произошло, общество придумало понятие права для регулирования своего же поведения и государство, которое следит за его соблюдением.
140. Сегодня каждый человек понимает, что хвататься за оружие при словесном оскорблении слишком глупо, ведь существует ст. 151 ГК РФ о компенсации за моральный вред. Этот закон исключает самосуд и объективно оценивает, было ли оскорбление или истец - слишком впечатлительная личность.
41. Сегодня существует несколько значений права. Чаще всего его описывают как письменно зафиксированную систему норм, находящуюся под охраной государства.
142. Некоторые ученые считают, что право существовало всегда, в частности право на жизнь, труд, свободу мысли и т. д. Государство не создавало их, оно лишь поддерживает и охраняет. Такие права называют естественными.
143. Кроме того, возможность субъекта на какое-либо действие, закреплённое в законе, - это тоже право. Например, право быть избранным в какой-либо государственный орган, право на владение имуществом движимым и недвижимым называются субъективными.
144. Существование права на бумаге не даёт его стопроцентной интеграции в общество. Чтобы оно стало юридическим правовым законом, ему необходимо придать определённую форму.
145. В законе и праве общее то, что первое зависит от второго. Законы принимаются на основе правовых норм и не могут их нарушать.
146. Понятие права включает в себя не только объяснение его функций, но и свою иерархию, как и законодательство. Принципы права - это идеи, которые лежат в начале любого правового акта, такие как гуманность, доброта, справедливость и т.д.
147. Общеправовые принципы косвенно закреплены в каждом кодексе и регулируют их законность. В ст. 6 ГК РФ говорится о праве на справедливый и добросовестный суд при наличии пробелов в законодательстве по данному вопросу.
148. Сегодня очевидно, что само понятие права и государства - это самостоятельные производные общественного развития в том смысле, что государство не является источником права.
149. Не тождественно соотношение нормы права и нормы закона (статьи). Один и тот же правовой аспект может быть изложен в целом ряде статей, или же в одном акте (законе) могут излагаться принципы нескольких правовых аспектов. 1
50. В международной среде нет законотворческого органа, как Совет Федераций и Государственная Дума в России. Участие в законотворчестве принимают международные организации.