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2.1.1. Грамматические задания. Выберите правильный вариант ответа:
Тема 1. Articles. Pronouns
(Артикли. Местоимения)
1. I hate___ rainy weather.
a) –
b) an
c) the
d) a
2. Alan’s father is furious because he has had _____ accident with his new car.
a) any
b) a
c) –
d) an
3. Mark Twain said: “When in doubt tell _____ truth”.
a) a
b) –
c) an
d) the
4. It’s rather dark in here. Could you switch on _____ light?
a) –
b) a
c) the
d) an
5. She is going to see her daughter who has come from _____ Canada.
a) a
b) –
c) the
d) an
6. A thermometer is ___ instrument for measuring the temperature.
a) –
b) the
c) a
d) an
7. ______ book you gave me is very interesting.
a) A
b) The
c) An
d) –
8. I often listen to ______ radio.
a) the
b) an
c) a
d) –
9. It’s ______ good idea to go for a walk.
a) a
b) an
c) –
d) the
10. Ken’s brother is in ___ prison for robbery.
a) the
b) -
c) a
d) an
11. He knows ________ history of French Revolution well.
a) the
b) an
c) a
d) -
12.______ Thames flows through London.
a) A
b) -
c) An
d) The
13.______ Everest is the highest mountain in the world.
a) An
b) A
4
c) The
d) -
14. In ______ centre of the city you can find a lot of shops selling nice clothes.
a) the
b) a
c) an
d) -
15. Fred is ______ astronaut. There are six of them on this mission.
a) an
b) a
c) -
d) the
16. _____ covers the largest part of the Earth’s surface?
a) Why
b) What
c) Who
d) Where
17. He waited patiently while his customers told him _____ troubles.
a) themselves
b) them
c) theirs
d) their
18. I don't have _____ free time today. Sorry.
a) some
b) something
c) any
d) anything
19. In a few minutes _____ was on his way home.
a) his
b) he
c) him
d) himself
20. Normally I check ______ e-mail after lunch.
a) mine
b) myself
c) my
d) me
21. The grandfather promised a nice gift to ____eldest grandson.
a) himself
b) his
c) him
d) he
22. I’d like those books. Please give ______ to me.
a) them
b) they
c) their
d) these
23. We are going for a walk. You can go with ______.
a) us
b) we
c) our
d) ours
24. Someone sent ______ these beautiful flowers for my birthday.
a) my
b) myself
c) me
d) mine
25. I know ______ and his sister quite well.
a) he
b) his
c) him
d) himself
26. Is there _____ in the room?
a) somebody
b) something
c) anybody
d) anywhere
27. Do you know ____ foreign languages?
a) some
b) any
c) no
d) some of
28. Do you know ___ bag it is?
a) whose
b) which
c) who
d) who’s
29. Nobody helped me, so I had to do it ___.
a) self
b) oneself
c) himself
d) myself
30. ___ is known of Julius Caesar’s education except that he studied Greek and Latin literature with a tutor.
a) Something
b) Anything
c) Nothing
d) No
Тема 2. Adjectives. Numerals
(Прилагательные. Числительные)
1. It was much _____ than he expected.
a) the cheapest
b) most cheap
c) cheap
d) cheaper
2. He had to leave as ______as possible.
a) soon
b) soonest
c) sooner
d) more soon
3. What is _____ mountain in Europe?
a) most high
b) the highest
c) high
d) more high
4. The smaller is the house, the _____ it will cost us to heat.
a) more less
b) little
c) less
d) the least
5. Everything is _____ in its season.
a) good
b) better
c) the better
d) much better
6. The Trans-Siberian railway is ______ in the world.
a) longest
b) the longest
c) longer
d) long
7. I have ______ time for my lessons than my sister has.
a) less
b) little
c) few
d) the least
8. She is ______ than her sister.
a) more bright
b) the brightest
c) brighter
d) the most bright
9. Jack is ______ person I’ve ever met.
a) the most cleverest
b) cleverer
c) the cleverest
d) more clever
10. It is ______ to cross the river in this place than over there.
a) little dangerous
b) dangerous
c) the most dangerous
d) less dangerous
11. Some car engines are ________ than others.
a) more efficiently
b) the most efficient
c) most efficiently
d) more efficient
12. If you use pictures, your report will be much ______.
a) the most interesting
b) most interesting
c) more interesting
d) interesting
13. Life is not ________ as it used to be.
a) the easiest
b) easy
c) easier than
d) so easy
14. This house is ________ of all the buildings in the street.
a) old
b) as old as
c) older than
d) the oldest
15. I have ______ job in the world.
a) a good
b) the best
c) better
d) goodest
16. John F. Kennedy was the youngest president of the USA and ___ to be murdered.
a) four
b) the four
c) fourth
d) the fourth
17. How many apples have you bought? – I bought ___.
a) ten
b) tenth
c) the tenth
d) tens
18. Show me ___ page!
a) three
b) the three
c) the third
d) thirty
19. Your third essay is better than ___.
a) the second
b) second
c) two
d) twenty
20. Open your books on page_____.
a) eleventh
b) eleventieth
c) the eleventh
d) eleven
21. The 11th of April 2010.
a) The eleven of April two thousand ten.
b) The eleventh April thousands one.
c) The eleventh of April two thousand and ten.
d) The eleven of April twenty-ten.
22. March is ____ month of the year.
a) third
b) the third
c) thirty
d) three
23. Five times five is______.
a) twenty-fifth
b) twenty-fife
c) twenty-five
d) twentieth-five
24. There are ____ people in my family.
a) sixth
b) sixtieth
c) six
d) sixteenth
25. 1/3
a) One-three
b) A third
c) First three
d) The third
26. 1/6
a) A sixth
b) First sixth
c) One-six
d) The sixth
27. ______in Africa are starving.
a) Thousands children
b) Thousands of children
c) Thousands and children
d) A thousands children
28. Do you believe in love at___ sight?
a) second
b) first
c) one
d) ones
29. I’m having an appointment on ____ of October.
a) the twelfth
b) the twelvth
c) twelve
d) twenty
30. It’s my ____ chance to get acquainted with her.
a) the second
b) two
c) second
d) the first
Тема 3. Affixation
(Аффиксация)
1. I’m always _______ by my attempt of speaking Greek.
a) disappointed
b) disappoint
c) disappointment
d) disappointedly
2. Theatre is one of the oldest forms of _______.
a) entertainment
b) entertain
c) entertainable
d) entertainer
3. The ______ of Stonehenge began about 5,000 years ago.
a) rebuild
b) built
c) builder
d) building
4. For complete ______ select one of the best diving suits.
a) relax
b) relaxative
c) relaxant
d) relaxation
5. There’s been an extraordinary ______ in computer design over the last 20 years.
a) improvable
b) improver
c) improves
d) improvement
6. I’d like to do it ______ this time.
a) differently
b) indifferent
c) difference
d) different
7. I want to be a famous ______ when I grow up.
a) science
b) scientist
c) scientific
d) scientifically
8. There is one evident ______ between Kate and Ann.
a) similar
b) similarity
c) simile
d) similarly
9. Kate is very ______.
a) friendship
b) friendly
c) friendless
d) friend
10. The ______ of this product line is Mr. Johnson.
a) distribution
b) distributor
c) distribute
d) distributing
11. The article deals with the problem of our country’s economic ______.
a) policy
b) political
c) politician
d) politics
12. A very important part of the American ______ system is the community college.
a) educational
b) educate
c) educator
d) educative
13. Try not to display your ______.
a) excited
b) excitement
c) excite
d) exciting
14. She always works ______ and does her best.
a) hardened
b) harder
c) hardly
d) hard
15. The car park is_____ for a big supermarket like this.
a) unadequate
b) imadequate
c) inadequate
d) iradequate
16. He was very ____ to do this job.
a) impatient
b) unpatient
c) dispatient
d) notpatient
17. The shop assistant _____ me.
a) discharged
b) overcharged
c) mischarged
d) uncharged
18. It’s against the law, isn’t? – Yes, it’s ___.
a) unlegal
b) illegal
c) irlegal
d) non-legal
19. How many English ____ verbs do you know?
a) unregular
b) disregular
c) misregular
d) irregular
20. It was ____ for him to forgive her.
a) impossible
b) unpossible
c) dispossible
d) mispossible
21. The answer was _____.
a) uncorrect
b) discorrect
c) incorrect
d) ircorrect
22. This handwriting is completely _____.
a) illegible
b) unllegible
c) irlegible
d) dislegible
23. I’m sorry, I ____ her message.
a) disunderstood
b) misunderstood
c) ununderstood
d) imunderstood
24. What’s her main _____ as a manager?
a) weaker
b) weakness
c) weakship
d) weak
25. The plane appeared in the sky, then suddenly _____ behind a cloud.
a) disappeared
b) unappeared
c) misappeared
d) overappeared
26. Jeans are ____ for weddings.
a) suitableful
b) unsuitable
c) missuitable
d) resuitable
27. This street map is ______.
a) incomprehensible
b) incomprehensible
c) incomprehensible
d) incomprehensible
28. Trees surround the house, so it’s _____ from the road.
a) unvisible
b) visibless
c) invisible
d) misvisible
29. His work is full of ____ mistakes.
a) careful
b) carefull
c) uncareful
d) careless
30. The roads were ______ this morning: it was foggy.
a) dangerful
b) dangerfull
c) dangerless
d) dangerous
Тема 4. Verbs and the System of Tenses
(Глаголы и система времён)
1. Alice said that her parents _____ back in a week.
a) would come
b) have come
c) comes
d) will come
2. After I _____ the letter, I started to cry.
a) had read
b) am reading
c) has read
d) were reading
3. I went by train and _____ at the station by my aunt.
a) meets
b) meet
c) was met
d) is met
4. It _____ to us how the accident had happened.
a) is explaining
b) shall be explained
c) was explained
d) has explained
5. He didn’t see me as he ______ when I came into the room.
a) has read
b) is reading
c) read
d) was reading
6. Mother will cook dinner when she ______ home from work.
a) come
b) comes
c) will come
d) has come
7. Oh, here you are! I ______ for you for half an hour.
a) have been waiting
b) am waiting
c) waited
d) has been waiting
8. I ______ my work by the end of June.
a) will finish
b) have finished
c) finish
d) will have finished
9. His smile was something she ______ before.
a) did never see
b) has never seen
c) had never seen
d) never saw
10. You ______ a lovely song when I entered the room. What was it?
a) was singing
b) had sung
c) sang
d) were singing
11. Unemployment among young people ______ constantly.
a) increased
b) is increasing
c) had increased
d) has increased
12. The workers ______ the road by the end of the year.
a) will have built
b) will build
c) will have been built
d) will be building
13. Have you ever been to England? Yes, I ______ there last year.
a) was
b) had been
c) have been
d) was being
14. When my friend rang me up, I ______ TV.
a) had been watching
b) was watching
c) had watched
d) watched
15. By the time we arrived at the station, the train_____.
a) left
b) has left
c) had left
d) was left
16. Nobody _____ why people walk or talk in their sleep.
a) know
b) knows
c) knew
d) is knowing
17. John _____ a new job.
a) have offered
b) has been offered
c) has offering
d) was been offered
18. I ____ Michael for ages.
a) didn’t see
b) don’t see
c) haven’t seen
d) saw not
19. How much_____ to fly to New York?
a) costs it
b) it costs
c) does cost
d) does it cost
20. If he ____ hard, he’ll fail his final exams.
a) doesn’t work
b) won’t work hard
c) hadn’t worked hard
d) wouldn’t work
21. Which of you ____ to go on an excursion?
a) wants
b) want
c) does want
d) do want
22. Ann said she ___ a new dress.
a) bought
b) will buy
c) has bought
d) had bought
23. This time tomorrow _____ in the Black Sea.
a) I swim
b) I’ll swim
c) I’ll swimming
d) I’ll be swimming
24. You have never been to Canada, ____ you?
a) isn’t it
b) did
c) have you
d) haven’t you
25. I’m sure we _____ before.
a) have never met
b) haven’t never met
c) didn’t met
d) had met
26. Alex was sure that he ______ the exams successfully.
a) will pass
b) would pass
c) passes
d) has passed
27. I don’t know who ____ your bike.
a) stealed
b) has stoled
c) did stole
d) has stolen
28. I am late, ___ I?
a) aren’t
b) am
c) amn’t
d) is
29. I _____ an essay by six o’clock yesterday.
a) have written
b) had written
c) wrote
d) was writing
30. Who _____ America?
a) did discover
b) did discovered
c) discovered
d) discovers
Тема 5. Modal Verbs
(Модальные глаголы)
1. I was lost and _____ to ask the policeman the way.
a) had
b) should
c) must
d) may
2. We were to meet at seven, but I _____ come here in time.
a) needn’t
b) can’t
c) may not
d) couldn’t
3. Brothers and sisters _____ to take care of each other.
a) are able to
b) must
c) ought
d) can
4. He ____ cross the river although it was very wide.
a) has to
b) was able to
c) must
d) can
5. You _____ not ring the bell, I’ve got the key.
a) need
b) can
c) could
d) ought to
6. You ______ be at home by 10 o’clock, it’s very urgent.
a) must
b) may
c) ought to
d) can
7. I ______ swim as well as my father.
a) have to
b) must
c) may
d) can
8. You will ______ speak English in a few months.
a) may
b) must
c) be able to
d) ought to
9. John ______ take a taxi because he was late.
a) was to
b) could
c) had to
d) did not have to
10. ______ I speak to Jane, please?
a) Ought
b) Must
c) Can
d) Need
11. Don't argue with her, you ______ respect her age.
a) should
b) will
c) may
d) can
12. The phone is ringing. It ______ be Jack.
a) would
b) could
c) must
d) need
13. Ann couldn’t go to the theatre with us because she ____ prepare for the exam.
a) had
b) must
c) had to
d) will have to
14. Everybody ___ to go to the dentist at least once a year.
a) should
b) must
c) ought
d) have
15. I was very much surprised when Ann said that she _____ swim.
a) can’t to
b) can’t
c) wasn’t able
d) couldn’t
16. Yesterday we ___ stay at work till 8 p.m.
a) had
b) had to
c) must
d) might to
17. If you help me, we ____ finish the job much sooner.
a) can to
b) could
c) will be able
d) will be able to
18. Our house ___ be haunted; we’ve lived here for years and we’ve never seen or heard anything unusual going on.
a) can
b) can’t
c) may
d) must
19. The style of this painting ___ be Cubism, because the artist has used square and rectangular shapes.
a) may
b) can
c) must
d) has to
20. It ____ be a coincidence, but isn’t it strange that I was thinking about John at the exact moment he called me?
a) may
b) could
c) have to
19
d) can’t
21. Susan ___ be at home, but I’m not sure.
a) must
b) may
c) should
d) ought
22. You ____have seen him in the morning. He left for London yesterday.
a) may not
b) must
c) can’t
d) could
23. Facing your phobias instead of avoiding them ____ help you overcome your fears.
a) might
b) ought
c) have
d) can to
24. You ____ approach wild animals; they can be very unpredictable.
a) must
b) have to
c) mustn’t
d) don’t have to
25.You ___ be an expert in karate to learn how to defend yourself.
a) can’t
b) couldn’t be
c) need
d) needn’t
26. If you don’t know the correct answer in a test, use your intuition; it ___ help you.
a) may
b) needs
c) will be able
d) was able
27. Do you ____ clean the house every day or every week?
a) must
b) had to
c) have to
d) have
28. I ____ help you with the shopping because you have a lot of bags.
a) ought
b) ought to
c) needn’t
d) couldn’t
29. When will you ___ come and see us in our new house?
a) should
b) be able to
c) must
d) can
30. Teresa ____ believe her eyes. She saw a man beating his wife on the street!
a) couldn’t
b) must
c) should
d) could
Тема 6. Reported Speech
(Косвенная речь. Согласование времён)
1. He asked me what questions I usually ____ to discuss with my friends.
a) like
b) likes
c) liked
d) will like
2. The weather forecast said it _____ rain the following day.
a) would
b) will
c) was
d) would be
3. He said that he ________ this film.
a) would see
b) has already seen
c) had already seen
d) would already see
4. He wanted to know where foreign books and magazines _____.
a) are usually sold
b) is usually sold
c) will be usually sold
d) were usually sold
5. They asked us why we _____ to their place the day before yesterday.
a) didn’t come
b) hadn’t come
c) hadn’t came
d) wouldn’t come
6. We wondered if he _______ in the competition the following week.
a) would take part
b) will take part
c) takes part
d) took part
7. Tom said he _____ to Disneyland.
a) have never been
b) has never been
c) hasn’t never been
d) had never been
8. She asked me what time I usually ______ home after work.
a) return
b) returns
c) returned
d) have returned
9. She didn’t explain, why she _____ her homework for the last lesson.
a) hasn’t done
b) haven’t done
c) didn’t do
d) hadn’t done
10. We asked Tom if he ______ to the party next Saturday.
a) would go
b) will go
c) has gone
d) had gone
11. The journalist asked me ____________.
a) what was my favourite pastime
b) what is my favourite pastime
c) what my favourite pastime was
d) what my favourite pastime is
12. Ann said that she ______ a new dress.
a) had bought
b) bought
c) will buy
d) buy
13. The teacher asked me ________ for the lesson.
a) was I ready
b) if I was ready
c) if was I ready
d) that I was
14. Mrs Johnson told us _____.
a) to not wash up
b) to do not wash up
c) not to wash up
d) that we don’t wash up
15. James said that he ______ a horse before.
a) never rode
b) has never ridden
c) had never ridden
d) would never ride
16. Mrs Black told us ________.
a) clear up the table
b) to clear up the table
c) that we clear up the table
d) we must to clear up the table
17. At the interview they asked Alan ________
a) could he drive?
b) did he can drive?
c) if he could drive.
d) if he can drive.
18. My brother said that he ______ the car the following day.
a) won’t need
b) doesn’t need
c) wasn’t needing
d) wouldn’t need
19. The guide asked us ______ the river water unboiled.
a) to not drink
b) not to drink
c) don’t drink
d) to do not drink
20. Another passenger came and asked _________.
a) if the seat was taken
b) was the seat taken
c) if was the seat taken
d) did the seat was taken
21. He wondered ________ if he told her the truth.
a) what will she say
b) what she would say
c) what would she say
d) she would say that
22. She said that her husband was a bank manager, ___?
a) wasn’t he
b) was he
c) didn’t he
d) didn’t she
23. He said that he ______ Spielberg’s new film yet.
a) hasn’t seen
b) didn’t see
c) hadn’t seen
d) wasn’t seen
24. Mother told me ______ the door to anyone.
a) not open
b) that I won’t open
c) not open
d) not to open
25. Hamlet ___, “To be or not to be, that is the question.”
a) said
b) told
c) spoke
d) talked
26. Our teacher ______ the text again.
a) made us to read
b) made us read
c) make us read
d) make us reading
27. Tom said that he _____ any brothers or sisters.
a) don’t have
b) haven’t have
c) didn’t have
d) haven’t had
28. We wondered if the prices ____ up again next year.
a) would go
b) went
c) would have gone
d) will
29. I knew that mother _____.
a) is sleeping
b) was sleeping
c) will be sleeping
d) were sleeping.
30. I was told that he _____ from London.
a) has returned
b) will return
c) have returned
d) had returned
Тема 7. Conditional Mood
(Условное наклонение)
1. We won’t go to the gallery if you ____ come with us.
a) don’t
b) won’t
c) willn’t
d) wouldn’t
2. Tony might have fixed your computer if you ____ him.
a) would ask
b) asked
c) had asked
d) did ask
3. When it’s cold, people ___ warm clothes.
a) would wear
b) will wear
c) don’t wear
d) wear
4. If I ____ my friend, I will ask his advice.
a) will meet
b) met
c) meet
d) would met
5. We _____ if we had played better.
a) wouldn’t have lost
b) would have lost
c) hadn’t had
d) didn’t have lost
6. If they _____late, they would have arrived on time.
a) left
b) didn’t leave
c) would leave
d) hadn’t left
7. I can’t help you if you ____ tell me what the problem is.
a) don’t
b) didn’t
c) won’t
d) haven’t
8. He can borrow my book if he ____ to return it soon.
a) promise
b) promised
c) promises
d) would promise
9. We can’t play golf ___ it stops raining.
a) if
b) as soon as
c) unless
d) when
10. ___ they beat this team, they will win the tournament.
a) If
b) When
c) Unless
d) Until
11. I wish Anna ____ busy today.
a) wouldn’t
b) didn’t
c) weren’t
d) isn’t
12. I wish it___ summer.
a) were
b) was
c) is
d) isn’t
13. If he had taken a map with him, he _____ lost.
a) won’t get
b) wouldn’t have got
c) wouldn’t have get
d) wasn’t lost
14. If he were a composer, he _______beautiful music.
a) would write
b) wrote
c) write
d) writes
15. ____ it rains, the match will be cancelled.
a) Possible
b) If
c) Unless
d) Until
16. We can go to the football game ____ it’s on Friday because I have a tennis lesson.
a) unless
b) if
c) when
d) as soon as
17. If I wasn’t busy, I _____ you.
a) will help
b) would help
c) would have helped
d) would helped
18. If I finish work early tonight, I _____ to Jane’s party.
a) would go
b) will go
c) goes
d) would have gone
19. ____ you’re over 18, you can’t enter the competition.
a) If
b) As soon as
c) And
d) Unless
20. If we ____ better, we could have won the championship.
a) could played
26
b) played
c) had played
d) play
21. He wouldn’t have accidents so often if he ____ more carefully.
a) drive
b) drove
c) drives
d) had driven
22. Unless you ____the right equipment, you can’t go diving.
a) will bring
b) bring
c) would bring
d) brings
23. If I were you, I ____ at home.
a) will stay
b) would stay
c) have stayed
d) would have stayed
24. If you ____ in your desk drawer, you’d have found your sunglasses.
a) had looked
b) look
c) looked
d) will look
25. If you had told me you needed help, I ______ it to you.
a) would give
b) would gave
c) would have give
d) would have given
26. If I ____ how to swim, I would feel confident in the water.
a) know
b) known
c) knew
d) would know
27. If I had time, I _____ this book.
a) will read
b) would read
c) would have read
d) won’t read
28. If the weather ___ fine tomorrow, we’ll go to the park.
a) will
b) will be
c) would be
d) is
29. I wish I ____ a scientist.
a) am
b) is
c) were
d) will be
30. If I ____ a ticket yesterday, I would have gone to the theatre with you.
a) had had
b) had
c) would have
d) did have
Тема 8. The Gerund. Participles
(Герундий. Причастия)
1. I am thinking of _____ Ann to a nursery school.
a) to have sent
b) sending
c) having sent
d) to send
2. Would you mind _____ just now?
a) having examined
b) being examined
c) to have examined
d) to be examined
3. We saw several people _____ in the lake.
a) swimming
b) being swum
c) to be swum
d) to be swimming
4. He went to the club instead of ______.
a) going home
b) to go home
c) have gone home
d) having gone home
5. Do you mind my ______ you a question?
a) asking
b) to ask
c) ask
d) asked
6. That car is not worth ______.
a) repairing
b) being repaired
c) to be repaired
d) to repair
7. I enjoy ______ comedy films.
a) watching
b) watched
c) to watch
d) watch
8. Do you mind ______ in here?
a) smoke
b) me smoke
c) to smoke
d) my smoking
9. I didn't like the idea of ______ to the cinema.
a) to go
b) go
c) gone
d) going
10. The suspect denied ____ the old woman’s purse.
a) stealing
b) stolen
c) have stolen
d) having stolen
11. After ____ the household chores, I always relax on the sofa.
a) having doing
b) doing
c) done
d) have done
12. I am really looking forward to_____ England at Christmas.
a) visit
b) visiting
c) having visited
d) having visit
13. The new James Bond movie is worth _____.
a) to see
b) to be seen
c) seeing
d) having seen
14. I suggest ____ London this year. How does it sound to you?
a) visit
b) visiting
c) to visit
d) to have visited
15. Diana eventually admitted ______ the window.
a) break
b) broken
c) breaking
d) to break
16. The students enjoy _____ English.
a) speak
b) speaking
c) of speaking
d) to speak
17. The letter ___ from St.Petersburg today will be in Moscow tomorrow.
a) sending
b) send
c) sent
d) was sent
18. While ____ the eggs into the basket, she broke one of them.
a) putting
b) having put
c) put
d) having putting
19. The floor ___ by Helen looked very clean.
a) washing
b) washed
c) to wash
d) to have washed
20. The girl _____ on the blackboard is our best student.
a) written
b) was written
c) writing
d) is writing
21. The ___ book was found at last.
a) losing
b) having losing
c) lose
d) lost
22. ____ his homework, he was thinking really hard.
a) When he did
b) Done
c) Having done
d) Doing
23. ____ the story, she closed the book and put it on the shelf.
a) Having read
b) Readed
c) Read
d) Reading
24. Translate the words ____ on the blackboard.
a) writing
b) are writing
c) were written
d) written
25. When we came nearer, we saw two boys _____ towards us.
a) came
b) come
c) coming
d) having come
26. Look at the flowers ____ by the children.
a) gathering
b) gathered
c) was gathered
d) were gathered
27. ____ his homework, he went for a walk.
a) Having done
b) Does
c) Do
d) Doing
28. She smiled ____ the joke.
a) remembered
b) remembering
c) to remember
d) having remembered
29. The boy came out of the water ____ from top to toe.
a) shaken
b) having shaked
c) shaking
d) was shaking
30. ____ all the fruit, he went home.
a) Selling
b) Solding
c) Having selled
d) Having sold
2.1.2 Лексические задания. Выберите правильный вариант ответа:
Vocabulary in Use
1. England has two different kinds of lawyers:
a) solicitors and barristers.
b) barristers and clerks.
c) solicitors and judges.
d) judges and clerks.
2. ______ prepare a case for a barrister.
a) Clerks
b) Judges
c) Solicitors
d) Witnesses
3. In a ____ action solicitors have the right to speak in the lowest courts.
a) civil
b) criminal
c) civil and criminal
d) judicial
4. Barristers are experts in _____ the Law.
a) interpreting
b) examining
c) making
d) breaking
5. Judges are usually _____ from the most senior barristers.
a) elected
b) chosen
c) appointed
d) named
6. A jury consists of ______.
a) ordinary people
b) people from only specific professions
c) ex-judges
d) barristers
7. In court, defendants must try to prove that they are ______.
a) guilty
b) innocent
c) immoral
d) prisoners
8. Twelve members of the public (called ____ ) listen to the evidence and then make their decision.
a) witnesses
b) defendants
c) barristers
d) the jury
9. People who see a crime are _____, and they usually give evidence at a trial.
a) defendants
b) judges
c) witnesses
d) detectives
10. If someone is guilty of a crime, the judge will give the ______.
a) prison
b) minor offences
c) sentence
d) order
11. The crimes that are not serious are called _______.
a) illegal actions
b) minor offences
c) careless actions
d) wrong actions
12. Have you ever ____ the law?
a) done
b) hit
c) broken
d) seen
13. Does anyone know why she has _____ the crime?
a) committed
b) done
c) invented
d) broken
14. In Britain it is _____ to drive a car without insurance.
a) guilty
b) innocent
c) immoral
d) illegal
15. If you drive through a red light, you will have to pay a _____.
a) tuition fee
b) fine
c) punishment
d) money
16. The jury must decide if the defendant is innocent or _____.
a) guilty
b) illegal
c) immoral
d) inadequate
17. Before they reach a decision, the jury must look at the ______ carefully.
a) witnesses
b) criminals
c) defendants
d) evidence
18. A young person who has broken the law is _____.
a) a vandal
b) a robber
c) a shoplifter
d) a juvenile delinquent
19. _______ makes copies of money, letters, documents, etc. in order to deceive people.
a) An assassin
b) A burglar
c) A forger
d) A murderer
20. _______ murders someone important, such as a king or president.
a) A burglar
b) An assassin
c) A robber
d) A shoplifter
21. The unlawful killing of a person without intention is called _____.
a) murder
b) assassination
c) manslaughter
d) kidnapping
22. Taking control of an aircraft using the threat of force, usually to make political demands is called _______.
a) drug trafficking
b) shoplifting
c) smuggling
d) hijacking
23. The police _____ guns.
a) wear
b) carry
c) buy
d) sell
24. Criminal cases ____ civil cases.
a) differ
b) differ from
c) differ with
d) different from
25. The man was _____ with dangerous driving although it wasn’t his fault.
a) charged
b) accused
c) blamed
d) punished
26. The criminal was sentenced ____ 5 years.
a) for
b) with
c) to
d) before
27. He was accused ____ murder.
a) to
b) of
c) in
d) with
28. The Law _____ any criminal activity.
a) allows
b) supports
c) forbids
d) approves
29. In any country, _______ profession plays an important role.
a) well-paid
b) adequate
c) legal
d) interesting
30. Lawyers are accustomed ____ doing whatever they feel their clients need.
a) to
b) with
c) for
d) of
2.1.3 Письмо
1. Расположите части делового письма в правильном порядке:
a) Mr G.Castellos, 37 Star Road, Aberdeen VH42 57GT
b) Dear Mr Castellos,
c) Thank you for your letter of application for the post of PR manager.
We would like to invite you to attend an interview.
We shall be conducting interviews on Monday 30 May and ask you to contact us to arrange a suitable time.
d) We look forward to meeting you.
Yours sincerely,
______________
Joan Dumorieur
Personnel Manager
e) New Publishers, 26 Greenhouse Street, Aberdeen PV31 23TR
Telephone 9593 385749 Fax 9593 75843
23 May 2021
1e, 2a, 3b, 4c, 5d
2. Расположите части делового письма в правильном порядке:
a) Mr. J.A. Burns, ABC Advertising, 17 New Street, New Town BN45 67HO
b) We are writing to confirm our meeting on 20 February concerning the advertisement of our new device in your catalogue.
We would appreciate it if you have time to visit our plant at an earlier date and inform us of it.
c) Dear Mr Burns,
d) John Bloggs plc, 25 Corner Street, Darlington
Tel. 249 26 49
14 February 2021
e) We look forward to hearing from you.
Yours sincerely,
_____________
Irene Green
Sales Manager
35
1d, 2a, 3c, 4b, 5e
3. Расположите части делового письма в правильном порядке:
a) New Computer Subway Ltd, 234 Susy Alvenue, Austin BC925 7NP
April 28, 2021
b) Dear Ms Conway,
c) We are writing in connection with your advertisement in yesterday’s Morning Star.
We would like to co-operate with you and would appreciate it if you have time to arrange a meeting with us in our office.
d) We look forward to hearing from you.
Sincerely yours,
___________
Alan Khan
R&D Manager
e) Ms J.Conway, Sales Manager, Magazine on networking,
89 Bear Street, Newcastle, JP786P
1a, 2e, 3b, 4c, 5d
4. Расположите части делового письма в правильном порядке:
a) Dear Sir/Madam,
b) Your company has been recommended to us by a business associate an we are writing to enquire about your translation services.
We would be grateful if you could send us your prices and terms of payment.
c) We look forward to hearing from you.
Yours faithfully,
_____________
Jim Forms
Managing Director
d) Blocks and Panels, 78 Victoria Park Street, Salton OK894
Telephone 875 34 53 77, fax 875 58 87 93
4 June 2021
e) Director General, Globus, 15 High Street, Salton PO576
1d, 2e, 3a, 4b, 5c
5. Расположите части делового письма в правильном порядке:
a) I would like to reserve three single rooms from 18th to 22nd December for three of our managers.
Could you please inform me of your rates and whether you offer discounts
for company bookings.
b) Richman Rings Inc., 34 Beddington Road, Gilmore, GH23B
Phone number: 985 46 73 49; fax number: 985 45 87 29
12 December 2020
c) I look forward to receiving your confirmation.
Yours faithfully,
_____________
Susan Peacock
Secretary
d) Dear Sir/Madam,
e) Managing Director, Miranda Hotel, 7 Moon Way, New Coast City, NM 54021
36
1b, 2e, 3d, 4a, 5c
6. Расположите части делового письма в правильном порядке:
a) James Kandick,
Chairman
March 16, 2021
b) We are pleased to invite you to a reception on April 21, 2021 to be held in honour of Prof.
Marilyn Gomez, the newest member of the faculty in the Department of Geological Sciences.
c) Dr. Claire Samson
Geological Survey of Canada
615 Booth Street, Room 204
Ottawa, Ontario
Department of Geological Sciences
Queen's University
Kingston, Ontario
d) Sincerely yours,
______________
James Kandick
e) Dear Dr. Samson,
1a, 2c, 3e, 4b, 5d
7. Расположите части делового письма в правильном порядке:
a) Dear Sirs,
b) Yours faithfully,
____________
Robert Bear
Sales Manager
c) We would be grateful if you could send us your latest catalogue and price list
of car appliances advertised in the current issue of Motoring Monthly.
d) The Sheffield Electronics Corp., 51 Gooseberry Street, Sheffield BN 3OX, GB
21 December 2020
e) Messrs Morgan & Co., 47 Tilbury Square, London N.W.
1d, 2e, 3a, 4c, 5b
8. Расположите части делового письма в правильном порядке:
a) We are interested in increasing our range of car heaters and would like to
receive information about the various models you are producing.
b) Yours faithfully,
______________
Frank Henley
Manager
c) The Sales Manager, Motorheat Ltd., Walker Road, Coventry
d) Clarke & Sims LTD., High Street, Ellingham, Suffolk
17 August 2021
e) Dear Sir,
1d, 2c, 3e, 4a, 5b
9. Расположите части делового письма в правильном порядке:
a) Yours faithfully,
____________
Paul V. Liston
Sales Manager
b) We thank you for your order No 1234, which will be delivered within the week.
We look forward to your further orders.
c) The Southern Paint Co. Ltd., Grayling Lane, Eastleigh 236
Tel.2345671
2 May 2021
d) Messrs T.Nicholls & Sons, Broad Street, Portsmouth
e) Dear Sirs,
1c, 2d, 3e, 4b, 5a
10. Расположите части делового письма в правильном порядке:
a) We thank you for your letter dated the 29th May and are pleased to send you our latest catalogue and the current price list. We shall send you a special offer as soon as we have your exact requirements.
b) Dear Sirs,
c) Messrs Dickson & King, 9 Newgate Street, London
d) George Finchley & Sons, 68 Bond Street, London
4 June 2021
e) Yours faithfully,
____________
Sally Blinton
Sales Manager
1d, 2c, 3b, 4a, 5e
11. Расположите части делового письма в правильном порядке:
a) We are a large music shop in the center of Liverpool and would like to know more about the tapes and cassettes you advertised in this month’s edition of Music Monthly.
b) Yours faithfully,
____________
Jeffry Allen
Director
c) A.X.C. Records Ltd., 41 Broadway, Liverpool L91 5 PB
12 May 2021
d) The Sales Department, Southern Importers Ltd., Dane Street, Northam,
Southampton S09 4YQ
e) Dear Sirs,
1c, 2d, 3e, 4a, 5b
12. Расположите части делового письма в правильном порядке:
a) I am applying for the position of secretary which was advertised in the San Francisco Chronicle of June 28.
b) I look forward to discussing this position with you.
Sincerely yours,
______________
Annette Lee
c) 16 North Road, Berkley, California 954366
June 29, 2021
d) Mrs. R.E. Bok, Human Resources Director, Pearl Employment Agency,
1900 Grant Avenue, Sun Francisco, California 92654
e) Dear Mrs. Bok,
1c, 2d, 3e, 4a, 5b
13. Расположите части делового письма в правильном порядке:
a) Yours faithfully,
______________
Lewis Caroll
For Chief Accountant
b) We enclose a statement of account up to 30th March, from which you will see that you owe us
2,850.00 for goods delivered in February.
c) Mr. Weston, Account Department, Crowley and Bullock Ltd., 24 Hartley
Lane, Real, Kent, England
d) Brown & Co. Ltd., 34 River Boat Street, Hull HY4 7VX
Tel. 38958745
18 April 2021
e) Dear Sirs,
1d, 2c, 3e, 4b, 5a
14. Расположите части делового письма в правильном порядке:
a) Dear Dr. Carson,
b) Sincerely yours,
_____________
Wane Brooks
c) 316 Anderson Road, Coral Gables, Florida 33134
May 16, 2021
d) I am writing in connection with your advertisement for the post of lab
assistant in yesterday’s the Daily.
e) Dr. Ralph Carson, 55 Chapel Street, Newton, Massachusetts 02160
1c, 2e, 3a, 4d, 5b
15. Расположите части делового письма в правильном порядке:
a) Sincerely yours,
_____________
Beata Gordon
b) I am writing in connection with your advertisement in yesterday’s the Bulletin where you announced the courses for foreign students ......................
c) 52 Ward Circle, Ridgefield, NJ 08888
June 17, 2021
d) Mr. Bill Rubin, Vice President of Operations Garnet Educational Services, 1523 Dexter Avenue, Suite 200, Seattle, Washington 98109
e) Dear Mr. Rubin,
1c, 2d, 3e, 4b, 5a
16. Расположите части делового письма в правильном порядке:
a) Thank you for your inquiry about our telephone answering machines and voice mail systems. I am enclosing brochures on our products. A sales representative will be in London next week. We will call you to schedule an appointment.
b) Dear Mr. Bonds,
c) Sincerely yours,
_______________
Charles Lyons
General Television Services
d) John Bonds
Marketing Manager
1201 East Grand Avenue
Chicago, Illinois 60611
e) The British General Television Services
12 City New Road
London, E.C.I.
December 16, 2020
1e, 2d, 3b, 4a, 5c
17. Расположите части делового письма в правильном порядке:
a) Western Shoe Company Ltd.
Yeovil, Somerset S19 3AF
England
14 October 2020
b) We thank you for your inquiry of 12 October, and appreciate your interest in our products.
Details of our export prices and terms of payment are enclosed, and we have arranged for a copy of our catalogue to be sent to you today.
c) Dear Sirs,
d) Yours faithfully,
_____________
M. Smith
Export Sales Manager
e) Fournier at Cie SA
14 Avenue Ravigny
Paris XV
France
1a, 2e, 3c, 4b, 5d
18. Расположите части делового письма в правильном порядке:
a) Very truly yours,
_______________
S. Granville
Sales Manager
b) Mrs. Sharon Tong
693 Felham Parkway
Bronx, New York 10422
c) We certainly appreciate your interest in Maxine Sportswear. Nevertheless, I am afraid I cannot supply you with the information you requested. Because we do not sell our garments directly to the consumer, we try to keep our wholesale prices between ourselves and our dealers.
d) Dear Mrs. Tong,
e) Maxine Sportswear Co., Inc.
842 Seventh Avenue
New York, NY 19918
June 10, 2021
1e, 2 b, 3d, 4c, 5a
19. Расположите части делового письма в правильном порядке:
a) NORP Freeport High School Freeport, VT 33322
June 15, 2021
b) Ms Iva Stravinsky Attorney-at-Law 200 Center Street Freeport, VT 33322
c) Thank you for the wonderful lecture on «Proposed Changes in the Financing of Medicare». The membership and I appreciate your contribution to our club.
d) Yours truly,
___________
Henry Purcell President
e) Dear Ms Stravinsky,
1a, 2b, 3e, 4c, 5d
20. Расположите части делового письма в правильном порядке:
a) Howard Stanley
9034 Canyon Street
San Francisco, California
USA, 90345
b) Mr John Lewis
General Manager
Hoverny Ltd.
4567 Snake street
Oakland, California
September 01, 2021
c) October, 02 will be a remarkable day of your 10th anniversary as a member of Hoverny Ltd.
During these years of work you proved to be a loyal and qualified worker with great potential.
We recognize the contribution you make in our company success and wish to congratulate you upon your 10th anniversary.
d) With respect,
_____________
John Lewis
General Manager
e) Dear Mr Stanley,
1b, 2a, 3e, 4c, 5d
21. Расположите части делового письма в правильном порядке:
a) Mrs J.H. Harris Rockford Arms Hotel Rockford, CO 33322
September 15, 2021
b) Enjoy Travel, Inc Fifth Avenue Greenburg, VT 11111
c) Thank you for your offer!
Please reserve one seat on your Around-the-World tour leaving Greenburg on September 30. I am enclosing a down payment of $500.00 (five hundred dollars) by personal check.
d) Yours truly,
____________
Mrs J.H. Harris
e) Dear Sir or Madam,
1a, 2b, 3e, 4c, 5d
22. Расположите части делового письма в правильном порядке:
a) Registrar’s Office State University Littleton,
SD 88877
b) Renee Martin
Blanc Apt. 406, Geneva, Switzerland
July 15, 2021
c) Yours truly,
____________
Renee Martin
d) Dear Registrar,
e) I am a student of microbiology in Geneva, Switzerland. I would like to apply for entrance to your university. Would you please send me an application form and information on your university.
1b, 2a, 3d, 4e, 5c
23. Расположите части делового письма в правильном порядке:
a) Dear Prof. Green,
b) Yours sincerely,
_______________
Alan Springer
c) Thank you for your invitation to the conference. We appreciate your care and consideration.
d) Rockway Apartments Northtown, MI 22221
August 2, 2021
e) Dept. of English Idaho State College Boise, ID 99999
1d, 2e, 3a, 4c, 5b
24. Расположите части делового письма в правильном порядке:
a) Dear Sir,
b) Yours truly,
__________
Thomas R.Hood
c) This is to acknowledge receipt of the housing contract that I requested.
d) Thomas R. Hood Associates Fourth and Pine Streets Los Angeles, CA 88888
September 2, 2021
e) ABC Corporation 132 Long Street Cottown, CA 88668
1d, 2e, 3a, 4c, 5b
25. Расположите части делового письма в правильном порядке:
a) 46 Thomas Drive Deptford, Essex SD7 OTX
August 6, 2021
b) Sincerely yours,
_____________
Patricia Smith
c) Dear Mr. Daley,
d) I would like to apply for the position of the Public Affairs Associate which you advertised in
the International Herald Tribune of August 4.
e) Mr P. Daley Deptford, Essex SD7 DJ6
1a, 2e, 3c, 4d, 5b
26. Расположите части делового письма в правильном порядке:
27. Расположите части делового письма в правильном порядке:
a) Dear Sirs,
b) 58 Jalan Thamrin • Jakarta • Indonesia
Telephone 378012 • Telex 6753
12 January 2020
c) We are expanding our offices in Jakarta and we will need extra desks, lights, chairs and filing cabinets.
Please send us your catalogue with your prices, sizes and colours for these items.
d) Prapatan Office Supplies
7 Jalan Prapatan
Jakarta
e) Yours faithfully,
________________
Peter Long
Manager
1b, 2d, 3a, 4c, 5e
28. Расположите части делового письма в правильном порядке:
a) I would like to invite you to a seminar that I'm confident will interest you.
The 3D Technologies Seminar held at the Moscow Crocus Congress Centre on June 13 will feature lectures by several key programmers and designers in the field of 3D modeling, with topics including trilinear filtering, anti-aliasing and mipmapping.
I am enclosing 3 tickets for you. I hope that you decide to attend and I am looking forward to seeing you there.
b) Dear Charles Milton,
c) Faithfully yours,
________________
Igor Petrov
Managing Director Ltd.
d) Mr Igor Petrov
The Company “Center”
5/7 Abramtsevskaya Street, Moscow
300042 Russia
April 20, 2021
e) Mr Milton
Product Information Manager
McCraw-Hill and Hall Ltd.
11 New Fetter Lane
London EC4P 4EE
England
1d, 2e, 3b, 4a, 5c
29. Расположите части делового письма в правильном порядке:
a) I would like to order the following books in cloth or hardback. Would you please send me the list prices and shipping costs as soon as possible?
b) Yours truly,
____________
Sue Allen Appleton
c) Dear Sir or Madam,
d) XYZ Book Company Sunrise Boulevard Riverton, MI 44445
e) 87 Broad Street North Dry Gulch, NM 55555
September 14, 2021
1e, 2d, 3c, 4a, 5 b
30. Расположите части делового письма в правильном порядке:
a) Yours truly,
____________
Alice Barker
b) Open University 300 North Boulevard Greenville,
ND 7779765
c) Dear Sir or Madam,
d) Florence White 41 Rose Street Grange,
ND 2341563
12 September 2021
e) Please send me a brochure on your open university and an application form. I am interested in classical languages.
1d, 2b, 3c, 4e, 5a
Задание: прочитать текст на юридическую тематику. Письменно перевести выделенный абзац. Передать основную мысль на английском языке в пяти предложениях. Побеседовать с преподавателем по содержанию текста.
Read and translate the text. Translate the highlighted paragraph in writing. Give the main idea of the text in five sentences. Talk to the teacher about the content of the text.
CARD 1
Classifications of Law
Common Law, or case law, is a type of legal system in force in England and Wales (the UK) and in approximately 80 countries influenced by the former British Empire, for example, the USA, Canada, Australia, India, and others. The formation of the English common law system is often attributed to King Henry II, who established the king's court and proclaimed that laws were "common" to the entire English realm. It is derived from custom and judicial precedent (which is the foundation of the system), rather than statutes.
In accordance with the principle of stare decisis, decisions made in higher courts are binding on lower courts in common law jurisdictions.
Civil Law, also referred to as European continental law, is the most widespread type of legal system in the world, applied in various forms in approximately150 countries. It is derived mainly from the Roman Law. The major feature of civil law systems is that the laws are organized into systematic written codes. Civil law involves cases where there are private disputes between individuals or parties that cannot be resolved outside the court system. They do not involve or affect other members of society as in criminal law. Torts, contracts and the law of negligence are integral parts of civil law.
Criminal law, the body of law that defines criminal offenses, regulates the apprehension,
charging, and trial of suspected persons, and fixes penalties and modes of treatment applicable to convicted offenders. Criminal law is only one of the devices by which organized societies protect the security of individual interests and ensure the survival of the group. There are, in addition, the standards of conduct instilled by family, school, and religion; the rules of the office and factory; the regulations of civil life enforced by ordinary police powers; and the sanctions available through tort actions. Crime is a term that refers to misconduct forbidden by law. Every crime consists of two elements: simply an act or it may be an omission to act and a mental state.
CARD 2
Public and Private Law
Public law is that part of law which governs relationships between individuals and the government, and those relationships between individuals which are of direct concern to society. Public law comprises constitutional law, administrative law, tax law and criminal law, as well as all procedural law. In public law, mandatory rules prevail. Laws concerning relationships between individuals belong to private law.
The distinction between public law and private law dates back to Roman law. It has
been picked up in the countries of civil law tradition at the beginning of the nineteenth century, but since then spread to common law countries, too. The borderline between public law and private law is not always clear in particular cases, giving rise to attempts of theoretical understanding of its basis.
Private law is that part of a civil law legal system and involves relationships between individuals, such as the law of contracts or torts (as it is called in the common law), and the law of obligations (as it is called in civil legal systems). It is to be distinguished from public law, which deals with relationships between both natural and artificial persons (i.e., organizations) and the state, including regulatory statutes, penal law and other law that affects the public order. In general terms, private law involves interactions between private citizens, whereas public law involves interrelations between the state and the general population Areas of private law: Civil law, Law of contract, Law of torts, Law of unjust enrichment, Law of trusts Law of agency, Law of property, Family law family-related issues and domestic relations including marriage, civil unions, divorce, spousal abuse, child custody and visitation, property, alimony, and child support awards, child abuse issues, and adoption, Succession, estate, probate, and testamentary laws.
CARD 3
The American Legal System
The United States of America is a federal republic consisting of 50 states and a federal district (Washington, DC). Unlike the UK, the US has a written constitution. The Constitution establishes a national government, defines the relationship between the national government and state governments, and separates powers among three branches: the legislative, the executive and
the judicial.
The difficulties of the American legal system have created hundreds of legal career options. From lawyers, judges and mediators to paralegals, secretaries and consultants, the legal professional's role is expanding and evolving to keep pace with the ever-changing legal system.
Lawyers' roles vary greatly. Litigation attorneys, also called trial attorneys, represent clients regarding legal disputes. Daily responsibilities include interviewing clients, rendering legal advice, performing legal research, taing depositions, arguing motions before a judge, and drafting legal documents including pleadings, discovery, motions and briefs.
Corporate attorneys, also known as transactional lawyers, advise clients in connection with a transaction. Corporate attorneys work with "deals" rather than "cases" and advocate in board rooms rather than court rooms.
Paralegals work under the supervision of a lawyer to assist in the delivery of legal services. Although they cannot give legal advice or represent a client in court, paralegals can do nearly everything a lawyer does. They investigate the facts of the case; interview clients and witnesses, draft legal documents; organize and manage files, documents and exhibits; file documents with federal and state courts; assist at hearings, arbitrations and administrative proceedings.
CARD 4
Legal System of the UK
The United Kingdom is a parliamentary democracy with a constitutional monarch. A king or queen is the head of state, and a prime minister is the head of Government. The people vote in elections for Members of Parliament (MPs) to represent them.
The United Kingdom doesn't have a single, written constitution. The British Constitution is formed from both written and unwritten sources.
The process of criminal justice in England and Wales begins when the police arrest a suspect. Then they decide whether they have enough evidence to prosecute — to send the suspect for trial. In serious cases this decision is made by the Director of Public Prosecutions, who is a senior law official.
After the accused person has been arrested, the first person he/she needs to see is a solicitor. Solicitors are qualified lawyers who advise the accused and help prepare the defense case. The solicitor may represent the accused in the lower courts. The person who is too poor to afford a solicitor will usually get legal aid — financial help from the state. In more serious cases, or where there are special legal difficulties, it is usual for the solicitor to hire a barrister to defend the accused. The barrister is trained in law and in the skills required to argue a case in court. The barrister for the defense will be confronted by his/her opposite number, the prosecuting barrister, who represents the state. Legal aid is available to pay for defense barristers.
Judges are trained lawyers, nearly always ex-barristers, who sit in the Crown Court and Appeal Court. The judge rules on points of law, and makes sure that the trial is conducted properly. He/she does not decide on guilt or innocence-that is the jury’s job. The judge only passes a sentence.
CARD 5
Legal Profession in Russia
Legal profession in Russia is subject to few formal restrictions. No special qualification (a law degree) is necessary, if you want to give legal advice or represent clients in the court in civil matters. Formal qualification is required if you represent clients in criminal cases as an advocate or decide cases in court as a judge.
Law higher education in Russia is provided by state and non-state accredited higher educational institutions. The admission to higher educational institutions is competitive. It is based on the results of the Uniform State Exam, and those who wish to get admitted to law schools must demonstrate high academic attainment in such subjects as the Russian language, history and social studies.
Law school graduates have a lot of options where to apply their knowledge. The choice is very wide. The Russian legal profession comprises prosecutors, lawyers in private practice, inhouse lawyers, investigators, notaries and judges. The law school graduates can work at the Bar, in the organs of the Prosecutor's Office, in various courts, in notary offices, legal advice offices, in organs of police as well as in different companies, banks, and enterprises.
Some lawyers may work as judges. They preside in the courtroom, conduct legal proceedings, resolve disputes and pass judgments.
As an advocate, a lawyer can act for the client in court and out of court. The work of an advocate includes defending the accused in criminal proceedings, interviewing clients, and drafting legal documents. A lawyer can be a prosecutor or a prosecutor's assistant at the Prosecutor's Office. Their main task is to supervise the correct application and' observance of the
law. In Russia, a lawyer can also work as a notary at the notary office and perform notary actions such as checking the legality of all the documents before notarizing them.
CARD 6
Studying Law in the UK
In the UK a legal education begins with the completion of a bachelor degree in law, known as an LLB, which usually takes 3 years.
In the vocational stage it is necessary to choose either to be a barrister or a solicitor as the training for these professions is different. A person who wishes to become a barrister completes the Bar Course Aptitude Test (BCAT) in order to apply for the Bar Professional Training Course (BPTC) at one of the Inns of Court. The Inns of Court are educational bodies and date back to the 14th century. A third stage, known as pupilage, is a year-long- apprenticeship, usually at a set of barristers' chambers.
A person wishing to become a solicitor, must also complete 3 stages: the first stage involves gaining a law degree; the second stage requires a one-year Legal Practice Course (LPC); and the final stage entails working for 2 years as a trainee solicitor with a firm of solicitors or in the legal department; of a local authority or large company.
Oxford has the largest law faculty in the UK. It has a heritage of more than 800 years of teaching and writing on law. Oxford law graduates are in high demand, because law firms and other employers know that our admissions are highly competitive. Our professional network includes more than 17,000 Oxford solicitors, barristers and academics internationally, many in leading positions in every branch and speciality of legal profession.
However, if you want to be a lawyer in the UK, it is not necessary to have a law degree. For non-law graduates, there is a one-year conversion course. And then graduates take the one year professional training programme and follow all the necessary stages of becoming a qualified lawyer.
CARD 7
Legal Profession and Legal Education
In any country, legal profession plays an important role. The work carried out by lawyers is diverse. Under adversary systems of justice, lawyers are advocates representing their clients. Besides litigation, lawyers perform different duties. They are advisors to business firms, to governmental agencies, to individuals, and etc. Lawyers do gravitate to many crucial interactions
while forming and implementing social, political, and economic policy. That is why the general objective of legal education is to prepare the students of law to function as competent lawyers.
Any Law School must provide broad training. The specific objective of the curriculum is to maximize the student's mastery of legal reasoning and legal method — in addition to teaching the basic substantive rules of the law. Students of law must be taught to analyze complex factual situations, to reason deductively, to separate the relevant from the irrelevant, to handle the most difficult problems. The main function of legal profession and legal practice is to apply the law in specific cases. This function is one of the most important in any branch of legal profession but most vividly this function is manifest in the work carried out by advocates and judges in the process of trying and deciding cases.
The most prestigious branch of legal profession in Great Britain and the countries influenced by its system is the judiciary. To become a judge one has to spend 15-25 years in private legal practice or in teaching law or governmental legal service. The judges are either appointed or elected. In England, judges are more commonly appointed.
Appointments of the judges are made by the Lord Chancellor. In the U.S.A., the appointive system is used in federal courts. Appointments of judges are under control of the Chief executive of the nation or state. In many states judges are elected by the population of the state. Governments require a staff of legal specialists. Great governmental departments need their own legal sub-branch to have skilled legal advice. There are also many lawyers in private client-directed practice.
CARD 8
Juvenile Crime
Juvenile delinquency refers to antisocial or illegal behavior by children or adolescents and is considered a serious problem all over the world. It is caused by social, economic and cultural factors. This juvenile criminality is apparent in marginal sectors of urban areas where children are exposed to violence in their immediate social environment, either as observers or as victims. Because delinquents basic education, if they have any, is poor they have been marginalized from society and destitute of any dignity or self esteem. Although most legal systems prescribe specific procedures for dealing with young criminals, such as juvenile detention centers, approaches to prevent youth from becoming delinquent should also include measures to instill equality and justice, fight poverty and create an atmosphere of hope and peace among youth. These preventive policies should be given priorities over any coercive measures.
Socioeconomic opportunities and administrative services should be provided in rural areas to discourage young people from migrating to urban areas. Similarly, youth from poor urban settlements should benefit from plans that focus on education, employment and access to leisure programs, especially during long school holidays. Young people who drop out of school or come from broken families should have access to specific social programs that help them become responsible adults.
Information campaigns should be planned that youth to be aware of the detrimental
effects of violence on the family, community and society, to teach them how to communicate without violence. Focus on the importance of family should become a priority because it is the primary institution of socialization of youth and continues to play an important role in the prevention of underage crime.
CARD 9
Burglary
Burglary is an offence against the property rights and security of another person. The entry by force with intent to commit a felony is the important element of burglary. A burglar is a person who has entered the premises by force and has committed the act of burglary.
The investigation of burglary should attempt to prove first that the crime of burglary was committed; and then, to identify, apprehend and prosecute the burglar. The investigation of burglary concentrates around the place of entry and scene of crime commission.
The scene of burglary is the place where the movements and work necessary for performing burglary come to a climax. The scene is the most possible place to find evidence. The investigation will usually begin at the scene by a search for physical evidence and witnesses. The search of the scene includes the examination of the method of breaking to find evidence of fingerprints, footprints, tools or other traces, blood, hair, paint, etc...
The damage made at the break is important for examination of traces.
The examination of the scene is conducted to find evidence of the contacts of the burglar with the crime scene and to find indication of evidence of the scene on the burglar if he is apprehended soon after he has committed burglary.
If possible, witnesses should be found who can describe the appearance of the scene before and after the burglary. Witnesses should help to establish the time of commission, the place, the identity of the burglar and many other things and circumstances. A thorough examination of the scene and witnesses should discover evidence of the method used to commit burglary. In burglary the investigator may search for evidence of the felony committed or intended and the results of it in order to establish the corpus delicti.
CARD 10
INTERPOL
Interpol is an international corporation founded in 1923 as a service organization devoted to coordinating actions against international criminals. Its clients are 174 agencies throughout the world. This organization is not under the control or supervision of any government. Interpol is a recognized intergovernmental police force whose task is to hunt down the international criminal. A multinational force, much like the United Nations, Interpol is made up of police of the Free World and a bona fide law enforcement agency in its own right. Among the first to fight international terrorism and sky-jackings, Interpol still leads the war on narcotics, assists a number of nations in the continuing search for wanted Nazi war criminals. One of the most highly respected groups in the world, Interpol, like any other police force is under governmental control to safeguard the basic rights of every citizen. It operates according to a strict code of behaviour and adheres to the highest ethical standards.
Interpol members are, for the most part, police and not governmental representatives, although certain governments have sent observers from their military, intelligence, customs, post office, and immigration departments.
Interpol does not have powers of arrest or any investigative rights. Its function is to disseminate information. Today 80 percent of the permanent staff is French. Interpol is much like any large corporation with bureaus in various countries and with representatives from these offices also stationed at the main office. Information is exchanged between the many national bureaus, but the police forces themselves are subject to the laws and policies of their respective nations.
CARD 11
The Role of Law
If we did not live in a structured society with other people, laws would not be necessary. We would simply do as we please, with little regard for others. But ever since individuals began to associate with other people – to live in society – laws have been the glue that has kept society together. For example, the law in our country states that we must drive our cars on the right-hand side of a two-way street. If people were allowed to choose at random which side of the street to drive on, driving would be dangerous and chaotic.
Laws regulating our business affairs help to ensure that people keep their promises. Laws against criminal conduct help to safeguard our personal property and our lives.
Even in a well-ordered society, people have disagreements and conflicts arise. The law must provide a way to resolve these disputes peacefully. If two people claim to own the same piece of property, we do not want the matter settled by a duel: we turn to the law and to institutions like the courts to decide who is the real owner and to make sure that the real owner's rights are respected.
We need law, then, to ensure a safe and peaceful society in which individuals’ rights are respected. But we expect even more from our law. Some totalitarian governments have cruel and arbitrary laws, enforced by police forces free to arrest and punish people without trial. Strongarm tactics may provide a great deal of order, but we reject this form of control. The legal system should respect individual rights while, at the same time, ensuring that society operates in an orderly manner. And society should believe in the Rule of Law, which means that the law applies to every person, including members of the police and other public officials, who must carry out their public duties in accordance with the law.
In our society, laws are not only designed to govern our conduct: they are also intended to give effect to social policies. For example, some laws provide for benefits when workers are injured on the job, for health care, as well as for loans to students who otherwise might not be able to go to university.
CARD 12
Classifications of Law
In order to understand the many different aspects of law it is helpful to look at the various areas or classifications of law. There are many legal principles or rules of law that are found in statutes, cases decided by courts, and other sources that are applied by the courts in order to decide lawsuits, and these rules or principles of law are classified as substantive law. On the other hand, the legal procedures that provide how a lawsuit is begun, how the trial is conducted, how appeals are taken, and how a judgment is enforced are called procedural law. In other words, substantive law is that part of the law that defines rights, and procedural law establishes the procedures whereby rights are enforced and protected.
Law is also frequently classified into areas of public and private law. Public law includes those bodies of law that affect the public generally; private law includes the areas of the law that are concerned with the relationship between individuals. Public law may be divided into three general categories: constitutional law, administrative law and criminal law. Private law is that body of law that pertains to the relationships between individuals in an organized society. Private law encompasses the subjects of contracts, torts, and property. Each of these subjects includes several bodies of law. For example, the law of contracts may be subdivided into the subjects of sales, commercial paper and agency.
The law of torts is the primary source of litigation in the country and is also a part of the total body of law in such areas as agency and sales. A tort is a wrong committed by one person against another or his property. The law of torts is predicated upon the premise that in a civilized society people who injure other persons of their property should compensate them for their loss.
The law of property may be thought of as a branch of the law of contracts. Property is the basic ingredient in our economic system, and the subject matter may be subdivided into several areas such as wills, trusts, estates in land, personal property, bailments and many more.
CARD 13
The Need for Law
Law is a system of rules that a society or government develops in order to deal with crime, business agreements and social relationships. It is also a set of rules for good behavior which is considered right and important by the majority of people as well as supported by the power of the government for moral, religious and emotional reasons.
The main function of law is a regulative one. Law basically serves two functions in a modern society. First, it serves to order and regulate the relations between all “persons”:
individuals, businesses or governments. Secondly, law acts as a standard of conduct and morality. Through both of these functions law forms and regulates the pattern of behaviour of a given society in order to achieve a broad range of social objectives. A modern society cannot exist without law as there would be anarchy in this society then. Law is “invisible” for ordinary people and is noticed only when somebody violates its order. If our neighbours play loud music late at night we will probably try to settle the matter in a reasonable and informal way without going to the police. Only when an
informal discussion breaks down we will start thinking about law.
Relations and transactions in modern societies are so complex that often we cannot deal with them without seeking legal advice. We use it when we buy or sell property, settle disputes with our employers, demand a refund for a defective product, try to hold somebody liable for damaging or stealing our possessions. Thus there are different types of law: civil law, criminal law, law of contracts, law of property, labour law, etc. Life of a modern society is changing very fast and every day new phenomena appear. Therefore, there is always a demand for new laws to regulate new spheres of life. For example, two hundred years ago there were no cars, so people didn’t need any laws for roads and traffic. With the invention of the car there appeared a need for driving regulations and we cannot imagine our life without these rules.
CARD 14
The First Laws
Rules and laws have been a part of human life ever since people started living in large settled communities. One of the most detailed ancient legal codes was drawn up in about 1758 B.C. by Hammurabi, a king of Babylonia. The code was carved into a great stone pillar so that it could be read by every citizen. The pillar is now in the Louvre museum in Paris. The laws were about most spheres of life and punishments under the code were often harsh. The principle of revenge was observed: an eye for an eye and a tooth for a tooth. Not only murderers but also thieves and false accusers faced the death penalty. Hammurabi's laws outlawed private blood feuds and represented an advance on earlier tribal customs, because the penalty could not be harder than the crime.
The ancient Greeks were among the first to develop a concept of law that separated everyday law from religious beliefs - they believed that laws were made by the people and for the people. In the seventh century B.C., Draco drew up Greece's first written code of laws. Under Draco's code death was the punishment for most offenses. Thus, the term draconian usually applies to extremely hard punishments.
Several decades passed before Solon — poet, military hero, and Athens' statesman — devised a new code of laws. Trial by jury, an ancient Greek tradition was retained, but enslaving debtors was prohibited. Most of the harsh punishments of Draco's code (except that on homicide) were prohibited or changed to make them more humane.
Roman Law is one of the greatest systems that have ever existed. It was based upon custom. Greeks and Romans believed in “natural law” – certain basic principles that are above the laws of a nation and arise from the nature of people. Roman Law and Greek Law had a strong influence on the law of most European countries and on Anglo-Saxon law.
CARD 15
Why Do People Commit Crimes?
No one knows why crime occurs. The oldest theory, based on theology and ethics, is that criminals are perverse persons who deliberately commit crimes or who do so at the instigation of the devil or other evil spirits. Although this idea has been discarded by modern criminologists, it persists among uninformed people.
The idea that some people commit crimes because of biological factors has a long tradition. This theory suggests that criminals are born, not made. It was developed in the 19th century by the Italian criminologist Cesare Lombroso, who believed that crimes were committed by persons who are born with certain recognizable hereditary physical traits.
Among the things he considered important were skull and ears shapes, colour of the hair and the eyes, etc. Although experts today no longer believe this, they argue that human behaviour can be linked to an individual's genes.
Many prominent criminologists of the 19th century stated that a person's surroundings such as poverty, lack of privacy and poor sanitation influence their behaviour. These conditions engender feelings of deprivation and hopelessness and are conducive to crime as a means of escape.
Studies of the 20th century investigators indicated that about one-fourth of a typical convict population is psychotic, neurotic, or emotionally unstable and another one-fourth is mentally deficient. Since the mid-20th century experts have inclined to the so-called multiple causation theory. They reason that crime springs from a multiplicity of influences — biological, psychological, cultural, economic and political. The multiple causation explanations seem more credible than the earlier, simpler theories. An understanding of the causes of crime is still elusive, however, because the interrelationship of causes is difficult to determine. To protect its citizens laws are made to regulate human behaviour and the State provides crime prevention policies, remedies and sanctions if the laws are broken.
CARD 16
Types and Purposes of Punishment
Punishment describes the imposition (by some authority) of a deprivation on a person who has violated a law, a rule, or another norm. When the violation is of the criminal law there is a formal process of accusation and proof followed by imposition of a sentence by an official, usually a judge. Informally, any organized group – most typically the family, may punish the wrongdoers. Because punishment is both painful and guilt-producing, its application calls for a justification. In Western culture, four basic justifications have been given: retribution, deterrence, rehabilitation, and incapacitation.
Deterrence means preventing someone from committing a crime, by making the punishment severe enough that the benefit gained from the offence is outweighed by the cost (and probability) of the punishment. Some punishments include work to reform and rehabilitate the wrongdoer so that they will not commit the offense again. The goal here is to change the offender's attitude to what they have done, and make them come to accept that their behavior was wrong.
Incapacitation means physically preventing offenders from committing crimes outside prison, i.e. protecting the community. For some petty crimes, punishment in the form of fines and compensation payments may be considered a sort of "restitution". In more serious cases retribution sets an important standard on punishment – the criminal must get what he deserves, but no more. Therefore, a thief put to death is not retribution; a murder put to death is. Here the concept is the mirror punishment ("an eye for an eye"), which reflects the nature or means of the crime in the means of (mainly corporal) punishment. Most penal historians note that sentences in Western countries have become much softer. Capital and corporal punishments, widespread in the early 19th century, are seldom used in modern society. The death penalty is now possible only for certain types of murders and treason.
CARD 17
Solicitors and Barristers
In most countries there is only one legal profession. England is almost unique in having two different kinds of lawyers, with separate jobs in the legal system. The two kinds of lawyers are solicitors and barristers. Solicitors and barristers are qualified lawyers, but they have a different legal training, they take different examinations to qualify, and once they qualified they usually do different types of legal work.
If a person has a legal problem, he will go and see a solicitor. Almost every town will have at least one. In fact there are at least 50,000 solicitors in Britain, and the number is increasing. Solicitors do much of the initial preparation for cases, which they then give to barristers to argue in court, as well as legal work, which does not come before a court. They draw up wills, give advice in the field of business, make all the legal arrangements for buying or selling land, assist employees and employers in cases involving allegations of unfair dismissal and redundancy payments, handle divorce and child care. They also deal with litigation, which is settled out of court. Solicitors have the right of audience in lower courts, such as Magistrates’ courts and in a civil action they can speak in the County Court, when the case is one of divorce or recovering some debts.
To qualify as a solicitor, a young man or woman joins a solicitor as a "clerk" and works for him while studying part time for the "Law Society" exams. Interestingly enough, it is not necessary for you to go to university. When you have passed all the necessary exams, you can "practise", which means you can start business on your own.
Barristers are different from solicitors. Barristers are experts in the interpretation of the Law. The barrister is also an expert on advocacy (the art of presenting cases in Court). If you want representation in any Court except the Magistrates' Court, you must have a barrister. A barrister must be capable of prosecuting in a criminal case one day and defending an accused person the next. Barristers are rather remote figures. If you need one, you never see him without your solicitor being with him. They are not paid directly by clients, but are employed by solicitors.
CARD 18
Lawyers in the USA
Issues of crime and justice have always held Americans’ attention. For Americans it is normal to bring their claims for justice to the courts. In America it is common to sue for compensation so we can say that Americans have a strong “compensation culture”. There are few countries where people treat the law as part of their everyday life. Americans’ claims for justice are based on the provisions of the United States Constitution. Most of the rights and freedoms that Americans enjoy are guaranteed in the first ten amendments or “Bill of Rights” of the Constitution. Among the guarantees are the freedom of religion, freedom of the press, and freedom to assemble in public. Citizens have the right to be judged in a speedy and public trial. If someone feels that these or other rights have been violated, he or she may bring the case to court.
Local, state and federal courts handle about 12 million cases a year. Today, the number of lawyers in the United States exceeds 675,000. This translates to one lawyer for every 364 people.
Twenty-five years ago, there was one lawyer for every 700 people. The rate at which the legal profession is growing will probably continue to outpace the rate of population growth.
Why is a career in law so popular? The first reason is big salaries and fees. Lawyers' salaries are still substantially greater than those of many other professionals. Some firms offer additional bonuses for clerkship experience in the federal courts and state supreme courts. The glamour of legal practice strengthens the attraction of its financial rewards. Advertising can now create demand for legal services, too. Finally, the principles of separation of powers and of checks and balances make governing difficult and sometimes impossible.
The President of the United States appoints federal judges to office with the approval of the U.S. Senate. This appointment includes Supreme Court justices, court of appeals judges and district judges. The Justice Department assesses candidates' professional abilities, and the Senate
Judiciary Committee initiates an independent investigation of the nominees. All nominees must be qualified attorneys. The Justice Department is responsible for faithful execution of the laws under the president's authority.
CARD 19
The Legislative and the Executive Branches of Power in the USA
The legislative power in the USA is vested in the Congress. The time of its establishment is 1774, when twelve British colonies assembled for the first Continental Congress. It was on July 4, 1776, that the Second Continental Congress adopted the Declaration of Independence and was renamed “the Congress of the Confederation”. At present, there are two chambers in the US Congress: the Senate and the House of Representatives. Besides the legislative function, the Senate is entrusted with the power of ratifying or rejecting all treaties made by the President, of declaring war, constituting tribunals inferior to the Supreme Court, etc.
The Senate consists of two members from each state chosen for 6 years, one-third retiring or seeking re-election every two years. A Senator must be at least 30 years old and he must have lived in the state for at least nine years. The Head of the Senate is the Vice-President who is elected for four years.
The House of Representatives is elected every other year. The number of the representatives from each state depends on the number of people in this particular state. The most populous state, California, currently has 53 representatives. The Head of the House of Representatives is the Speaker. He is elected by the members of the House. A representative must be at least 25 years old and must have lived in the USA for at least seven years.
The executive branch is made up of the President and all that fall under the President’s statute, including appointees, administrative agencies and all departments established to execute the law. The governor is the head of the executive branch of a state government. The President can neither create legislation nor encroach upon the legislative branch. Many of the President’s appointees must be approved by the legislative branch.
For example, the President appoints the Judges to the Supreme Court, but the Senate must approve his nominations. So the branches are not absolutely separate, as they should be in accordance with the theory of separation of powers, which states that all the branches of power — the legislative (Senate/House of Representatives), the executive (President) and the judiciary (Supreme Court) are discrete bodies. They should not be united in one body if the state is democratic.
CARD 20
Lawmaking Procedure in the USA
The Congress of the United States is the highest lawmaking body in the United States and one of the oldest national legislatures in the world. The U.S. Congress consists of two houses - the Senate and the House of Representatives. A member of the Senate is referred to as a senator, and a member of the House of Representatives is called a representative or congressman or congresswoman.
The general process for making a bill into a law is described in the Constitution. The first step in the legislative process is the introduction of a bill to the Congress. Bills originate from several different sources: from individual members of the Congress, from a member of a constituent or a group of constituents, from one or more state legislatures, or the President or his administration, but only members of the Congress can introduce legislation.
After being introduced, a bill is referred to the appropriate committee for review. There are 17 Senate committees, with 70 subcommittees, and 23 House committees, with 104 subcommittees. A bill is first considered in a subcommittee, where it may be accepted, amended, or rejected. If the members of the subcommittee agree to move a bill forward, it is reported to the full committee, where the process is repeated again. If the full committee votes to approve the bill, it is reported to the House or the Senate. When the bill comes up for consideration, the House has a very structured debate process. Each member who wishes to speak has only a few minutes, and the number and kind of amendments are usually limited. In the Senate, debate on
most bills is unlimited - Senators may speak to issues other than the bill under consideration during their speeches, and any amendment can be introduced. A bill must pass both houses of the Congress before it goes to the President for consideration. Once debate has ended and any amendments to the bill have been approved, the full membership will vote for or against the bill.
The bill is then sent to the President.
When receiving a bill from the Congress, the President has several options. If the President agrees with the bill, he or she may sign it into law. If the President disagrees with the bill, he may veto it and send it back to the Congress. The Congress may override the veto with a two-thirds vote of each chamber, at which point the bill becomes law and is printed.
CARD 21
Legislation in the UK
In Great Britain laws are made in Parliament at Westminster. The British Parliament consists of the monarch, the House of Lords, and the House of Commons. Their work is similar: making laws (legislation), checking the work of the government (scrutiny), and debating current issues. The House of Lords is composed of life peers and hereditary peers. The House of Common is composed of Members of Parliament (MPs).
The idea for a new law can come from a variety of sources. First reading is the first stage of a Bill’s passage through the House of Commons - usually a formality, it takes place without debate. The short title of the Bill is read out and then the Bill is printed. The Bill is published as a House of Commons paper for the first time.
The next stage is second reading, the first opportunity for MPs to debate the general principles and themes of the Bill. Once second reading is completed, the Bill proceeds to committee stage. Committee stage is where detailed examination of the Bill takes place. This is therefore often considered the most important step in the parliamentary process for researchers aiming to determine legislative intent. It is at this stage that amendments are made. If the Bill has been amended, the Bill is reprinted before its next stage. Once committee stage is finished, the Bill returns to the floor of the House of Commons for its report stage, where the amended Bill can be debated and further amendments proposed. Report stage is normally followed immediately by debate on the Bill’s third reading. Amendments (proposals for change) cannot be made to a Bill at the third reading in the Commons.
The process in the House of Lords is very similar to the process in the House of Commons. The Bill will have the pro forma first reading, then the second reading. After the second reading the Bill will normally be referred to a Committee of the Whole House. The Bill then passes through a consideration stage and the third reading. In the House of Lords amendments may be made in the Committee of the Whole House, the consideration stage, and the third reading (this is different from the House of Commons where no amendments can be made in the third reading). If the Bill is started in the Commons, it goes to the House of Lords for its first reading. If the Bill is started in the Lords it returns to the House of Lords for consideration of any amendments the Commons has made. Both Houses must agree on the exact wording of the Bill. A Bill may go back and forth between each House until both Houses reach agreement.
When a Bill has completed all its parliamentary stages in both Houses, it must have the Royal Assent before it can become an Act of Parliament. The Royal Assent is the monarch’s agreement to make the Bill into an Act and is a formality. When Royal Assent has been given to a Bill, the announcement is usually made in both Houses by the Lord Speaker in the Lords and the Speaker in the Commons.
CARD 22
The US Constitution
The form of the US government is based on the Constitution of 1787 which was adopted after the War of Independence. The US Constitution consists of 7 articles and 27 amendments. The first 10 amendments are called the Bill of Rights and were adopted in 1791 under popular pressure. The Bill of Rights is a series of limitations on the power of the United States federal government, protecting the natural rights and liberties, property including freedom of religion, freedom of speech, a free press, free assembly, and free association, as well as the right to keep and carry arms. In federal criminal cases, it requires indictment by a grand jury for any capital crime, guarantees a speedy, public trial with an impartial jury composed of members of the state in which the crime occurred.
A key feature of the US Constitution is federalism – the division of power between the national government and the states. Another major feature of the Constitution is the principle of the separation of powers within the national government. According to this principle, the executive, legislative and judicial branches exercise powers that are largely separate and distinct.
There is not a strict and complete separation of powers, the powers of the three branches overlap.
Each branch has its own responsibilities, but no branch has more power than the other branches.
There is the system of checks and balances. Under this principle each branch has certain duties to check the powers of the other branches. This system was meant to protect against the extremes since it makes compromise and consensus necessary.
The legislative branch is called the Congress which consists of the Senate and the House of Representatives. It is the responsibility of the Congress to propose and pass laws. In the system of checks and balances, Congress can refuse to approve Presidential appointments and can override presidential veto. The executive branch consists of the President, the Vice President, the Cabinet and the 13 Departments, and also the independent agencies. Its responsibility is to enforce laws. According to the principle of checks and balances, the President has the power of veto to reject the bill of the Congress. He also appoints all Supreme Court Justices. The judicial branch consists of the Supreme Court, 11 Circuit Courts of Appeals and 94 District Courts. This branch explains and interprets laws and makes decisions in lawsuits. It has the power over the other two branches and according to the principle of checks and balances can declare their actions and laws unconstitutional in case they violate the principles of the Constitution.
CARD 23
The United Nations Organization
The United Nations (UN) is an international organization whose stated aims are to facilitate cooperation in international law, international security, economic development, social progress, human rights, and achieving world peace. The UN was founded in 1945 after World War II to replace the League of Nations, to stop wars between countries, and to provide a platform for dialogue. There are currently nearly 200 member states, including nearly every recognized independent state in the world. From its headquarters on international territory in New York City, the UN and its specialized agencies decide on substantive and administrative issues in regular meetings held throughout the year.
The organization is divided into administrative bodies, primarily: - The General Assembly (the main deliberative assembly); - The Security Council (decides certain resolutions for peace and security); - The Economic and Social Council (assists in promoting international economic and social cooperation and development); - The Secretariat (provides studies, information, and facilities needed by the UN); - The International Court of Justice (the primary judicial organ). Additional bodies deal with the governance of all other UN System agencies, such as the World Health Organization (WHO) and United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF).
The organization is financed from assessed and voluntary contributions from its member states, and has six official languages: Arabic, Chinese, English, French, Russian and Spanish.
The UN was founded as a successor to the League of Nations, which was widely considered to have been ineffective in its role as an international governing body, as it had been unable to prevent World War II. The term “United Nations” was first used by Winston Churchill and Franklin D. Roosevelt, in the 1942 Declaration by United Nations, which united the Allied countries of WWII under the Atlantic Charter, and soon became a term widely used to refer to them.
The UN officially came into existence on 24 October 1945 upon ratification of the Charter by the five permanent members of the Security Council – France, the Republic of China, the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom and the United States – and by a majority of the other 46 signatories. The first meetings of the General Assembly, with 51 nations represented, and the Security Council, took place in Westminster Central Hall in London in January 1946. According to the Charter, the UN is to maintain international peace and security, to develop friendly relations among nations, to cooperate in solving international problems and in promoting respect for human rights.
CARD 24
Types of Constitutions
A Constitution is a system which establishes the fundamental rules and principles which a state will use to govern and regulate. There are several types of constitutions: written/unwritten, rigid/flexible, federal/unitary.
The term written constitution is used to describe a constitution that is entirely written, that is codified in one single document. Written constitutions normally consist of a ceremonial preamble, which sets forth the goals of the state and the motivation for the constitution, and several articles containing the substantive provisions. The term unwritten constitution is used to describe a constitution in which no single, formal document delineates the powers of a government. Instead, an unwritten constitution comprises the body of a country's laws, enacted over time, with an emphasis on political precedent and parliamentary procedure, to create a framework in which a limited government operates.
Unwritten constitutions can contain written sources: e.g. constitutional statutes enacted by the Parliament; and also unwritten sources: constitutional conventions, customs and traditions.
Many historians use the term “rigid” to describe the Constitution because in such constitution there are provisions in writing that cannot be legally changed with the same ease and in the same manner as ordinary laws. On the other hand, the Constitution is called “flexible” because it is an unwritten document that can be changed by an act of Parliament or through a process of amendment.
The federal constitution establishes the division of authority between the Federal Government and the component units of the government. In a federal constitution, sovereignty is invested in the central government. It allows a limited amount of government among units. The unitary constitution relates to the parliament. It follows parliamentary system of power. The unitary constitution establishes a unitary system of government where a central government does exist. Although units are associated with that government, sovereignty is controlled by the central government.
CARD 25
The UK Government and the Judiciary
The United Kingdom is a unitary state and a democratic constitutional monarchy. The constitution is uncodified, being made up of constitutional conventions and various elements of statutory law. The Monarch is Head of State and the Prime Minister is the head of Government. The Sovereign formally appoints the Prime Minister, who, by convention, is the leader of the majority party in the House of Commons. Other ministers are appointed by the Sovereign on the advice of the Prime Minister. They make up the Government and act as political heads of the various Government Departments. The UK has a cabinet Government. They meet weekly to run the country, while the British Parliament is in session. The UK Cabinet has collective responsibility for decisionmaking, no Cabinet minister can oppose it. Although the executive power is exercised by Her Majesty’s Government, all the ministers remain responsible to the UK Parliament. The UK Parliament is the United Kingdom’s supreme legislative body. The main function of Parliament is to pass laws and raise finance through taxation. It consists of the Queen and the two chambers of Parliament, the House of Commons and the House of Lords. The House of Commons is a representative body consisting of 650 Members of Parliament (MPs) elected by a system of universal suffrage. The House of Lords is not elected. It is not allowed to amend in any way certain bills passed by the House of Commons and has limited powers of revision or delay over others.
Great Britain has a long judicial history. The judiciary is an independent body. The United Kingdom doesn’t have a single unified judicial system. Today the UK has three distinct systems of law: English law, Northern Ireland law and Law of Scotland. Both English law, which applies in England and Wales, and Northern Ireland law are based on common-law principles. The essence of common law is that law is made by judges sitting in courts, applying
their common sense and knowledge of legal precedent to the facts before them. Law of Scotland, a hybrid system based on both common-law and civil-law principles, is applied in Scotland.
CARD 26
The US System of State and Government
Government of the United States is based on a written constitution. This constitution consists of a Preamble, seven Articles, and 27 Amendments. From this document, the entire federal government was created. It is a living document whose interpretation has changed over time. The amendment process is such that while not easily amended, US citizens are able to make necessary changes over time.
The USA is a presidential republic. The US Constitution was adopted by Congress in 1787. The Constitution created three separate branches of government. Each branch has its own powers and areas of influence. At the same time, the Constitution created a system of checks and balances that ensured no one branch would reign supreme. The three branches are: legislative, executive and judicial. The legislative branch consists of the Congress (the Senate and the House of Representatives) which is responsible for making the federal laws. The Congress can pass the law anyway if it gets a two-thirds majority votes. The President can veto (reject) it. Congress also plays an informative role. It informs the public about different and important subjects. The executive power lies with the President of the United States who is given the job of executing, enforcing, and administering the laws and government. The president is to carry out the programmes of the Government, to recommend much of the legislation to the Congress. The judicial power of the United States is vested in the Supreme Court – the highest judicial organ of the state and the federal courts. Their job is to interpret and apply US laws through cases brought before them. Another important power of the Supreme Court is that of Judicial Review whereby they can rule laws unconstitutional. The Constitution is built on six basic principles: Popular Sovereignty; Limited Government; Separation of Powers; Checks and Balances; Judicial Review; Federalism.
The US exists under a two-party system. The two major parties in America are the Democratic and Republican parties. Sometimes, a special issue produces a third party, but the third party often loses strength. Parties perform a wide variety of functions. They act as coalitions and attempt to win elections. In the United States elections are held at all levels including local, state, and federal. There are numerous differences from locality to locality and state to state.
CARD 27
Legal System of Russia
While establishing its legal system Russia has passed several stages which can be defined according to their historical periods. Before the socialist revolution (1917) Russian law system borrowed much from German legal system and formally could be included into the German subbranch of the continental law. After the October Revolution Soviet lawyers decided to find their
own unique way in law and followed this path for at least 75 years, they tried to find their own identity and to create Soviet socialist law in Russia. After these attempts failed, Russia tried to come back to its roots - to the European system of law.
Therefore, from the formal point of view the Russian law system is closer to the Roman
German law than to the Anglo-American one. It has many features of European continental law but we cannot say that it fully fits it. Modern post-Soviet Russian legal system obtains its individual approaches to various aspects of law. As Russia’s legal system is based on a civil law system, influenced by Roman law, its emphasis is made on codification. All decisions are based
on the foundation of statutes and codes rather than judicial precedent, as it is evident in common law. It is brightly demonstrated, for example, in criminal law. As in other civil law countries, the pretrial investigation in Russia is the dominant phase in the criminal process. In this part of the process, a judicial official of the state puts together a case file which contains all evidence of the case and then comes the court which holds an active role in determining case facts, using a more inquisitional system and bringing up a sentence.
The Russian legal system is operated as a civil law system meaning they follow the law based on written codes. Russian Civil Code is the primary source of civil law and the civil code spells out certain basic principles. Under Russian Law, foreign individuals and companies enjoy the same rights to sue and be sued in Russian Courts as Russian natives and companies. The court system is divided into three separate parts: 1. The Constitutional Court of the Russian Federation which focuses on ensuring compliance with Federal Law based on the Russian Constitution. 2. Courts of General Jurisdiction is a four-tier system with the Supreme Court of the Federation being the highest and the three-tier military court system beneath it. This four-tier structure deals with civil, criminal and administrative cases. 3. Arbitration Courts are specialized courts for settling commercial disputes and is also set-up as a four-tier system. They have special jurisdiction over disputes arising out of the application of legislation governing corporations, shareholders and participants in Russian companies on all matters with the exception of employment issues.
CARD 28
The UK Common Law
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland contains three major legal systems which have been developed through ages. The three systems, each with their own legal rules, courts and legal professions, are based geographically. These are systems of England and Wales, Northern Ireland and Scotland.
England and Wales form one jurisdiction. The national courts (High Court, Court of Appeal and House of Lords) are based in London, but there are local courts (Magistrates' Courts and County Courts) throughout the country and the Crown Court has many locations.
Northern Ireland has some unusual features in its system, which is centered in Belfast. Many relate to the political instability and violence which has taken place in the region since its establishment. One such feature is the absence of a jury in "terrorist" trials. But the legal system of Northern Ireland has otherwise grown very similar to that of England and Wales.
Scotland had its own system of laws and courts (based in Edinburgh) before its union with England and Wales in 1707. The Acts of Union of 1707 expressly allowed these to continue, and so Scotland retains many distinctions from the English system. It should be noted that the United Kingdom has incorporated the legal system of the
European Union since 1972. The legal systems within the United Kingdom were based largely on judge-made law since the 17th century. The law developed through decisions made by judges and was called “case law” or “common law” (common to all courts of the country). Since that time, new laws and law reforms have increasingly been brought about through Acts of Parliament, usually inspired by policies of the Government. Even so, the development of case law still remains an important source of law. A statement of law made by a judge in a case can become binding on later judges and can in this way become the law for everyone to follow.
Precedent has a very important role in the common law. It ensures certainty and consistency and logical progression and development in the law.
Many countries (especially in Continental Europe) prefer a codified system in which laws are set out in legislation and cases which apply them may be illustrative but do not become binding. Nevertheless, the common law does have advantages over codified systems - it is more flexible, it is more practical as it is derived from real life dramas played out before the courts.
CARD 29
How the British Law Developed
In early medieval England, there was no written law. Each feudal lord or baron administered justice personally. Although these baronial courts had similarities, the laws were different in different places. Disputes were settled on the basis of local customs and the baron’s judgment. In time, the king was able to establish a system of courts, which enforced a common law throughout England. The rules of law, which were stated in these early cases, became precedents (examples) for setting future, similar cases. In the beginning, few decisions were recorded, and so the early common law was sometimes known as “unwritten law”. Finally, the principles and rules announced by the courts were preserved in writing.
Thus, particular rules became fixed, and people knew what to expect if similar problems arose in the future. This resulted in what has come to be known as the Common Law – judgemade case law that has its origin in the traditions, customs, and trade practices of the people.
The English Common Law began to develop after the conquest of England by William the Conqueror in 1066. To keep order and peace, the Kings of England tried to create a uniform or “common” law to govern different regions of the British Isles. Circuit-riding judges and the use of the jury aided the Norman Kings in the consolidation of their kingdom. In medieval England, sometimes there was no remedy available from a common law court to enforce certain rights or to correct certain wrongs. This was because in civil cases the court could give only monetary damages. A person who wanted any other kind of relief would appeal directly to the King. The King would refer the person to his chancellor, who was usually a clergyman of good conscience and fairness. The chancellor would hear the case without a jury and would then give appropriate relief. Such hearings developed into what came to be known as a separate system of Courts of Equity.
In 1215, the English barons forced the English King John I to sign and adopt the Magna Carta, which provided for them certain guarantees and protection against unreasonable acts of the king. Later, the Magna Carta was revised, and other documents, such as the English Bill of Rights (1689), were adopted.
Today, the two great systems of law in the Western world are the Common law of the English-speaking world and the Roman civil law found on the continent of Europe. Both systems have the same objectives, but they differ in origins and methods.
CARD 30
The Court System of England and Wales
The lowest criminal courts or Magistrates’ Courts deal with minor offences, with more serious cases being heard in the Crown Court, in front of a judge and jury. The Crown Court also hears cases appealed from the Magistrates’ Courts on factual points. Civil cases are heard firstly in the County Courts or the High Court, which is divided into three divisions: Queen’s Bench, Family and Chancery.
The Chancery Division considers complex matters such as disputes about wills, trusts, bankruptcy, land law, intellectual property and corporate laws, and the Queen's Bench Division deals with other business matters including contracts, torts or land disputes. The Queen's Bench Division has some specialist subdivisions, including a Commercial Court, which deals with large and complex business disputes.
In England and Wales, unlike in many other countries, the role of a lawyer is divided into two clear and distinct specialists – that of a solicitor and a barrister.
A solicitor’s role is to give specialist legal advice and help, and they are the main advisers on all matters of law to the public. There are over 60,000 solicitors practising in England and Wales, and their work varies enormously. Generally, solicitors deal with all aspects of legal practice from drafting letters, to researching cases and providing legal advice. They usually qualify into, and practice in, a specialist area, i.e. family, commercial or media law.
Barristers usually qualify into, and practice in, a specialist area, but unlike solicitors will spend most of their time researching the law and practising advocacy at the courts. Much of a barrister's work will involve court work, and highly developed presentation and interpersonal skills are essential.